mirror of
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Brandon Goodell
GitHub
commit
68553c32ec
18 changed files with 2862 additions and 2268 deletions
publications
bulletins/in-prog/MRL-9999-lrtm-schemes
roadmaps
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@ -3,137 +3,8 @@
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author={Nakamoto, Satoshi}
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}
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@techreport{grenander1981abstract,
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title={Abstract {I}nference},
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||||
author={Grenander, Ulf and Ulf, Grenander},
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||||
year={1981}
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||||
}
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||||
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@article{massey1996estimating,
|
||||
title={{E}stimating the parameters of a nonhomogeneous {P}oisson process with linear rate},
|
||||
author={Massey, William A and Parker, Geraldine A and Whitt, Ward},
|
||||
journal={Telecommunication Systems},
|
||||
volume={5},
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||||
number={2},
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||||
pages={361--388},
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year={1996},
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||||
publisher={Springer}
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||||
}
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||||
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||||
@inproceedings{decker2013information,
|
||||
title={{I}nformation propagation in the {B}itcoin network},
|
||||
author={Decker, Christian and Wattenhofer, Roger},
|
||||
booktitle={Peer-to-Peer Computing (P2P), 2013 IEEE Thirteenth International Conference on},
|
||||
pages={1--10},
|
||||
year={2013},
|
||||
organization={IEEE}
|
||||
}
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||||
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||||
@article{sompolinsky2013accelerating,
|
||||
title={Accelerating {B}itcoin's Transaction Processing. Fast Money Grows on Trees, Not Chains.},
|
||||
author={Sompolinsky, Yonatan and Zohar, Aviv},
|
||||
journal={IACR Cryptology ePrint Archive},
|
||||
volume={2013},
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||||
pages={881},
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||||
year={2013}
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||||
}
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||||
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||||
@article{macheta2014counterfeiting,
|
||||
title={Counterfeiting via Merkle Tree Exploits within Virtual Currencies Employing the {C}ryptoNote Protocol},
|
||||
author={Macheta, Jan and Noether, Sarang and Noether, Surae and Smooth, Javier},
|
||||
year={2014}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@incollection{eyal2014majority,
|
||||
title={Majority is not enough: {B}itcoin mining is vulnerable},
|
||||
author={Eyal, Ittay and Sirer, Emin G{\"u}n},
|
||||
booktitle={Financial Cryptography and Data Security},
|
||||
pages={436--454},
|
||||
year={2014},
|
||||
publisher={Springer}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@article{kraft2015difficulty,
|
||||
title={Difficulty Control for Blockchain-Based Consensus Systems},
|
||||
author={Kraft, Daniel},
|
||||
year={2015}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@book{serfozo2009basics,
|
||||
title={Basics of applied stochastic processes},
|
||||
author={Serfozo, Richard},
|
||||
year={2009},
|
||||
publisher={Springer Science \& Business Media}
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||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@article{miller2017empirical,
|
||||
title={An Empirical Analysis of Linkability in the {M}onero Blockchain},
|
||||
author={Miller, Andrew and M{\"o}ser, Malte and Lee, Kevin and Narayanan, Arvind},
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||||
journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:1704.04299},
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||||
year={2017}
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||||
}
|
||||
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||||
@inproceedings{au2006constant,
|
||||
title={Constant-size {ID}-based linkable and revocable-iff-linked ring signature},
|
||||
author={Au, Man Ho and Liu, Joseph K and Susilo, Willy and Yuen, Tsz Hon},
|
||||
booktitle={International Conference on Cryptology in India},
|
||||
pages={364--378},
|
||||
year={2006},
|
||||
organization={Springer}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@inproceedings{au2006event,
|
||||
title={Event-oriented k-times revocable-iff-linked group signatures},
|
||||
author={Au, Man Ho and Susilo, Willy and Yiu, Siu-Ming},
|
||||
booktitle={Australasian Conference on Information Security and Privacy},
|
||||
pages={223--234},
|
||||
year={2006},
|
||||
organization={Springer}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@inproceedings{chandran2007ring,
|
||||
title={Ring signatures of sub-linear size without random oracles},
|
||||
author={Chandran, Nishanth and Groth, Jens and Sahai, Amit},
|
||||
booktitle={International Colloquium on Automata, Languages, and Programming},
|
||||
pages={423--434},
|
||||
year={2007},
|
||||
organization={Springer}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@article{kumar2017traceability,
|
||||
title={A Traceability Analysis of {M}onero's Blockchain},
|
||||
author={Kumar, Amrit and Fischer, Cl{\'e}ment and Tople, Shruti and Saxena, Prateek},
|
||||
year={2017}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@misc{knaccc2017,
|
||||
author = {knaccc},
|
||||
title = {Potential Privacy Leaks in {M}onero and Churning},
|
||||
year = {2017},
|
||||
publisher = {GitHub},
|
||||
journal = {GitHub repository},
|
||||
howpublished = {\url{https://github.com/monero-project/monero/issues/1673#issuecomment-278509986}}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@misc{kenshi2017,
|
||||
author = {kenshi84},
|
||||
title = {Monero Subaddresses},
|
||||
year = {2017},
|
||||
publisher = {GitHub},
|
||||
journal = {GitHub repository},
|
||||
howpublished = {\url{https://github.com/monero-project/monero/pull/2056}}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@misc{mcElrathBraid,
|
||||
author = {Bob McElrath},
|
||||
title = {Braiding the Blockchain},
|
||||
year = {2017},
|
||||
howpublished = {\url{https://scalingbitcoin.org/hongkong2015/presentations/DAY2/2_breaking_the_chain_1_mcelrath.pdf}}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@article{noether2016ring,
|
||||
title={Ring Confidential Transactions},
|
||||
title={Ring confidential transactions},
|
||||
author={Noether, Shen and Mackenzie, Adam and others},
|
||||
journal={Ledger},
|
||||
volume={1},
|
||||
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@ -141,68 +12,85 @@
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year={2016}
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||||
}
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||||
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@article{T-1955,
|
||||
doi = {10.2307/166755},
|
||||
title = {Applications of Game Theory in Fighter versus Bomber Combat},
|
||||
author = {T. E. Caywood and C. J. Thomas},
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journal = {Journal of the Operations Research Society of America},
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issnp = {0096-3984},
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issne = {2326-3229},
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year = {1955},
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month = {11},
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volume = {3},
|
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issue = {4},
|
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page = {402--411},
|
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url = {http://gen.lib.rus.ec/scimag/index.php?s=10.2307/166755},
|
||||
@inproceedings{liu2004linkable,
|
||||
title={Linkable spontaneous anonymous group signature for ad hoc groups},
|
||||
author={Liu, Joseph K and Wei, Victor K and Wong, Duncan S},
|
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booktitle={ACISP},
|
||||
volume={4},
|
||||
pages={325--335},
|
||||
year={2004},
|
||||
organization={Springer}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@book{strogatz2014nonlinear,
|
||||
title={Nonlinear dynamics and chaos: with applications to physics, biology, chemistry, and engineering},
|
||||
author={Strogatz, Steven H},
|
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year={2014},
|
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publisher={Westview press}
|
||||
@article{rivest2001leak,
|
||||
title={How to leak a secret},
|
||||
author={Rivest, Ronald and Shamir, Adi and Tauman, Yael},
|
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journal={Advances in Cryptology, ASIACRYPT 2001},
|
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pages={552--565},
|
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year={2001},
|
||||
publisher={Springer}
|
||||
}
|
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|
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@article{doob1942topics,
|
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title={Topics in the theory of {M}arkoff chains},
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author={Doob, Joseph L},
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journal={Transactions of the American Mathematical Society},
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volume={52},
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number={1},
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pages={37--64},
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year={1942},
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publisher={JSTOR}
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@article{abe20021,
|
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title={1-out-of-n signatures from a variety of keys},
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author={Abe, Masayuki and Ohkubo, Miyako and Suzuki, Koutarou},
|
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journal={Advances in Cryptology, Asiacrypt 2002},
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pages={639--645},
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year={2002},
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publisher={Springer}
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}
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@article{doob1945markoff,
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title={{M}arkoff chains--denumerable case},
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author={Doob, Joseph L},
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journal={Transactions of the American Mathematical Society},
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volume={58},
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number={3},
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pages={455--473},
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year={1945},
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publisher={JSTOR}
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@misc{van2013cryptonote,
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title={Cryptonote v 2. 0},
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author={van Saberhagen, Nicolas},
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year={2013}
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}
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@article{gillespie1977exact,
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title={Exact stochastic simulation of coupled chemical reactions},
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author={Gillespie, Daniel T},
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journal={The journal of physical chemistry},
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volume={81},
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number={25},
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pages={2340--2361},
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year={1977},
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publisher={ACS Publications}
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@inproceedings{pointcheval1996security,
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title={Security proofs for signature schemes},
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author={Pointcheval, David and Stern, Jacques},
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booktitle={Eurocrypt},
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volume={96},
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pages={387--398},
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year={1996},
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organization={Springer}
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}
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@article{gillespie1976general,
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title={A general method for numerically simulating the stochastic time evolution of coupled chemical reactions},
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author={Gillespie, Daniel T},
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journal={Journal of computational physics},
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volume={22},
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@inproceedings{ohta1998concrete,
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title={On concrete security treatment of signatures derived from identification},
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author={Ohta, Kazuo and Okamoto, Tatsuaki},
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booktitle={Annual International Cryptology Conference},
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pages={354--369},
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year={1998},
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organization={Springer}
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}
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@inproceedings{bresson2002threshold,
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title={Threshold ring signatures and applications to ad-hoc groups},
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author={Bresson, Emmanuel and Stern, Jacques and Szydlo, Michael},
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booktitle={Annual International Cryptology Conference},
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pages={465--480},
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year={2002},
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organization={Springer}
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}
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@inproceedings{bender2006ring,
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title={Ring signatures: Stronger definitions, and constructions without random oracles},
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author={Bender, Adam and Katz, Jonathan and Morselli, Ruggero},
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booktitle={TCC},
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volume={6},
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pages={60--79},
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year={2006},
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organization={Springer}
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}
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@article{scozzafava1993uniform,
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title={Uniform distribution and sum modulo m of independent random variables},
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author={Scozzafava, Paola},
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journal={Statistics \& probability letters},
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volume={18},
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number={4},
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pages={403--434},
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year={1976},
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pages={313--314},
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year={1993},
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publisher={Elsevier}
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}
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}
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%\usepackage[notref,notcite]{showkeys}
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% THEOREM ENVIRONMENTS
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\begin{document}
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\begin{frontmatter}
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\begin{fmbox}
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{\huge\sffamily Quarterly update} \hfill\setlength{\fboxrule}{0px}\setlength{\fboxsep}{5px}\fbox{\includegraphics[width=2in]{moneroLogo.png}}
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\dochead{}
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\date{\today}
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\author[
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addressref={mrl},
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email={bggoode@g.clemson.edu}
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]{\fnm{Brandon} \snm{Goodell}}
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\address[id=mrl]{
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\orgname{Monero Research Lab}
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}
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\end{fmbox}
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%\begin{abstractbox}
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%This document describes
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%\begin{abstract}
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%We outline the various ideas currently under investigation by the Monero Research Lab, provide context for each task, and present some informative sources regarding each task. \end{abstract}
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%\end{abstractbox}
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\end{frontmatter}
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||||
This document is intended to inform the community of the work done at MRL in the past quarter, sort of as a response to the first MRL Roadmap, MRL-R001, and sort of as a newsletter to inform everyone about Monero Research Lab. We try to address the partial MRL ``to-do'' list of research items from the first MRL Research Bulletin, MRL-R001, and document the work that has been done both directly and indirectly toward those ends. We document which items on those lists are being de-prioritized on the next MRL Roadmap, and we introduce a few new items that came up over the past few months that will make it onto the next MRL Roadmap (which we expect to put out in the next two to three weeks).
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The Monero Research Lab wishes to state emphatically that our concern is to report our findings on Monero, which is an open source project, as honestly and transparently as possible, subject to the restriction that we do not compromise the safety or security of the funds of our users by doing so. Our goal is not to persuade, re-assure, or enrich speculators or investors; our goal is to assist the Monero community and the Monero Core Team in the design of a robust and strong cryptocurrency with an emphasis on user privacy. Consequently, all findings will be responsibly disclosed to the Monero community. Responsible disclosure may involve maintaining secrecy regarding security flaws for a period of time before disclosure to the public, which provides the development team time to correct known issues and protect our users. This also provides time to discreetly contact the developers of other cryptocurrencies so they, also, may protect their users.
|
||||
|
||||
Now that is out of the way, here is what we did with our summer:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{RingCT Security Proofs}
|
||||
|
||||
We have combined this topic with the threshold signature topic (see next item). In \cite{noether2016ring}, there are certain flaws in the proofs of security for MLSAG signatures that need correction, but in the construction of the threshold signature security proofs, we must first establish the security of the MLSAG signatures and then generalize to the threshold setting. Due to this, the corrected RingCT proofs are now part-and-parcel with the threshold multisignature paper.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Threshold multisignatures}
|
||||
|
||||
We are fleshing out an implementation proposed by former contributor \texttt{shen} of $t$-of-$n$ threshold MLSAG multisignatures in Monero. The details of this implementation have been available to the community for months, and vetting those implementations and developing security proofs has been one of the more pressing areas of work for \texttt{surae}, especially in the past six weeks. We currently have a partial draft of MRL Research Bulletin MRL-0006 detailing the implementation in preparation (see the MRL github for a current copy). However, this is only partial because completing this document requires novel security models against insider attacks, where an adversary may corrupt a subthreshold number of private keys. Novel security models require novel security proofs, and so we are ``in the weeds'' on that right now. We hoped this would be accomplished before the end of August but the novelty of the security models have taken MRL a little by surprise. A delightful, surprise, but a surprise nonetheless: the novelty of these results may lead to a peer-reviewed publication on behalf of MRL!
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||||
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||||
|
||||
On a related note, \texttt{surae} began in June approaching the threshold multisignature scheme as a mere problem of \textit{computing private keys jointly}, and this was a complete misunderstanding of the problem at hand, which is to \textit{compute signatures without directly computing the private key.} Consequently, our work on this topic was initially unified with our work on the sub-address scheme described by \texttt{kenshi84} and \texttt{knaccc}, by considering these both as problems involving revamping Monero's addressing schemes. This is also one of the reasons that MRL-R001 failed to elaborate upon the sub-address scheme. Once this mis-understanding was clarified to us (after several very educational and helpful conversations with \texttt{luigi} and \texttt{kenshi84}), MRL is once again approaching these two topics separately. We anticipate an MRL Research Bulletin on the sub-address scheme very soon after MRL-0006 describing threshold signatures is released; security proofs for the sub-address scheme are (ostensibly) remarkably easier than in the threshold case.
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Recent criticisms}
|
||||
|
||||
Critics have claimed the Monero blockchain is traceable, as in \cite{miller2017empirical} and \cite{kumar2017traceability}; these papers make use of the \emph{distributional problem} mentioned in the first roadmap together with a few other routes of analysis. Some of the concerns and claims made in these papers are irrelevant because they only apply to pre-RingCT Monero outputs. Some of the concerns are relevant and related to the so-called EABE attack (see next item).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Churning, EABE Attack, Large Rings}
|
||||
|
||||
Detailed by \texttt{knaccc} in \cite{knaccc2017}, the EABE (Eve-Alice-Bob-Eve) attack is described. A merchant, Bob, and his customer, Alice, use an exchange, Eve, to convert cryptocurrency to fiat and back again. If Eve sends some moneroj to Alice, who uses it to purchase items from the merchant Bob several times, and if Bob immediately converts all cryptocurrency to fiat after each transaction to limit his exposure to the volatility of cryptocurrency-to-fiat exchange rates, then Bob unintentionally provides information Eve needs to determine the purchasing habits of Alice. This problem is exacerbated if Eve is a know-your-customer exchange. Urgency on this problem is higher than our original estimation: most merchants who accept cryptocurrency enact this behavior, most users do not churn to avoid this problem, and moreover churning transactions can leave a statistical signal (in the sense of the Miller and Kumar criticisms) that is quite undesirable.
|
||||
|
||||
This work dovetailed nicely with our road map item \textbf{hardness of blockchain analysis}. In the study of this (as well as the Miller and Kumar criticisms), \texttt{surae} established three separate probabilistic models of transaction output ownership in a ring signature setting in analyzing this problem. None of these models will see publication soon, however, because each one, a refinement of the previous, is insufficient to describe the problem at hand. We do, however, anticipate some explanatory details to be made public over the coming months. MRL has been reluctant to provide more details, as we stated very clearly in our first MRL Roadmap, \emph{we will not comment thoroughly on these criticisms until our review is complete for security reasons.} We will take as much time as necessary for this, and we recognize that issues such as this one are urgent.
|
||||
|
||||
In the current CryptoNote framework, an elegant solution would be to simply increase ring sizes dramatically. This seems impractical, however, unless ring signatures can be made small (perhaps sub-linearly sized with respect to the number of ring members) which leads us to the next item.
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Signature Size and RingCT}
|
||||
|
||||
Blockchain bloat can be mitigated with efficient signatures. MRL was made aware of research by two separate international teams of researchers (see Section \ref{sec:academ}) making progress on compact Ring Confidental Transactions. One scheme (put forth by Sun, Au, Liu, and Yuen) is very efficient and fast but requires a trusted set-up. Another scheme (put forth by Ruffing, Thyagarajan, Ronge, and Schr{\"o}der, or RTRS) does not use a trusted set-up, but experiences a trade-off since the computation and verification times are quite beastly. An RTRS RingCT may contain thousands of ring members and take up the space of a classic RingCT signature with only a few dozen ring members, but the RTRS RingCT could take hours, days, or more to compute. We believe verification time may be optimized to an extent, but it is also quite slow. Currently, \texttt{knaccc} is working with \texttt{surae} and \texttt{sarang} on a Java prototype of the implementation for testing purposes, and discussions with \texttt{smooth}, \texttt{moneromooo}, and \texttt{luigi} on the practicalities of implementation are constant. MRL anticipates that the scheme may be made sufficiently stream-lined to include in Monero for a moderate increase ring size that was previously unreasonable, but not the epic increase initially hoped for.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Zero-knowledge Lit Review}
|
||||
|
||||
We began communication with Jeffrey Quesnelle, a computer science graduate student at the University of Michigan at Dearborn, at the start of this quarter. Jeffrey wrote an extremely helpful and detailed literature review on zero-knowledge schemes with an eye toward ZK-SNARKS. We listed this zero-knowledge literature review first in MRL-R001 because it was rather low-hanging fruit... but it also did not present a high priority compared to practical implementation issues (threshold signatures, sub-addresses) or security issues (the EABE attack, see below). Our original date for pushing this out was the end of August 2017, which has come and gone. To be clear, this work has not come to a stop, it is merely delayed; now that \texttt{sarang} has joined MRL, \texttt{surae} has more time to put into finishing this project. MRL anticipates movement on this document before the end of September (in fact, the first week of September).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Future-proofing Monero}
|
||||
|
||||
Unlike the above topics, this is actually a constant ``in-the-background'' thing to keep in mind. For example, when we use Pedersen commitments, we have certain hiding and binding properties, but when we use El Gamal commitments, which are similar, these properties change and the commitments are no longer sufficiently hiding against adversaries with quantum computing. Making decisions such as these throughout algorithm design is a constant issue to be considered. Consequently, this item will be removed from future MRL road maps, as it is more of a design philosophy.
|
||||
|
||||
\section{New stuff}
|
||||
|
||||
We have put effort into projects not initially on the MRL Roadmap either due to merit of those projects or urgency. Something related to these items will each make it onto the next MRL Roadmap.
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[i.]
|
||||
\item \textbf{Viewkey solutions}. Since the CryptoNote framework is not \emph{unlinkable} in the sense of the original CryptoNote whitepaper, an adversary can infer much information about whether a certain address has received transactions without knowing the associated viewkey (as in the EABE scenario). Moreover, viewkeys lack functionality. For example, users may desire revocable viewkeys, or viewkeys only valid for certain periods of time, or may desire viewkeys that grant visibility to outgoing transactions (which should also be revocable). Discussions on viewkey solutions have begun between contributors \texttt{endogenic}, \texttt{knaccc}, \texttt{moneromooo}, \texttt{surae}, and \texttt{fluffypony}.
|
||||
|
||||
\item \textbf{Zidechains}. Even with very large ring sizes, since the CryptoNote framework is not zero-knowledge, information is leaked with each transaction by definition. One method proposed by \texttt{fluffypony} to mitigate this is to construct a zero-knowledge sidechain to peg to the Monero blockchain which we are tentatively calling \textit{zidechains}.
|
||||
|
||||
\item \textbf{Blacklisting provably spent outputs}. Wallet software should avoid including provably-spent outputs in ring signatures if possible, because doing so reduces the relative signer ambiguity of the signature, degrades Monero's claims toward untraceability, and degrades the fungibility of all other Monero outputs. Recently, \texttt{fluffypony} had a conversation with \texttt{gmaxwell} on maintaining curated blacklists of provably spent outputs, and \texttt{surae} has begun work on algorithms for finding provably-spent transaction outputs.
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Dead Items}
|
||||
|
||||
Recall that the items deeper on the MRL Roadmap were items of lower priority. We did not have an opportunity to make progress on the following issues, all of which are very long-term, in terms of priority. These items are worthwhile side hustles for future research, but do not have a lot of immediate pay-off.
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[i.]
|
||||
\item \textbf{Testing Blockchain Dynamics with Population-driven Modeling.}
|
||||
|
||||
\item \textbf{Blockchain Design}.
|
||||
|
||||
\item \textbf{Traceability, extending RingCT to obscure transaction time.}
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Academic Engagement}\label{sec:academ}
|
||||
|
||||
In the past three months, Monero Research Lab has had some great interaction with the broader academic community, briefly mentioned above. We wish to highlight the following, which is big news!
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[(i)]
|
||||
|
||||
\item Shi-Feng Sun at Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Man Ho Au at Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Joseph K Liu at Monash University, and Tsz Hon Yuen at Huawei Technologies wrote ``RingCT 2.0: A Compact Accumulator-Based (Linkable Ring Signature) Protocol for Blockchain Cryptocurrency Monero,'' a paper proposing a much more efficient and speedy implementation of Ring Confidential Transactions. These researchers have been instrumental in ID-based cryptography and ring signatures, so their contribution directly to Monero, literally mentioning us in their paper title was surprising, exciting, and a huge honor!
|
||||
|
||||
\item Nearly at the same time, Tim Ruffing at Saarlang University together with Sri Aravinda Thyagarajan, Viktoria Ronge, and Dominique Schr{\"o}der at Friedrich-Alexander-Universit{\"a}t contacted us directly with a separate Ring Confidental Transaction scheme, with a very different Ring Confidential Transaction scheme (see below). We have had a few conversations with him about implementation choices; thanks to hard work by \texttt{knaccc} and \texttt{surae}, we have a nearly-working prototype (to Ruffing's surprise! \texttt{knaccc} works quick).
|
||||
|
||||
\item In implementing the Ruffing scheme, Monero Research Lab has also been in contact with Jonathan Bootle at University College in London about a set-up presented in one of his papers used in the Ruffing scheme; not only are we the first (to his knowledge) to implement his set-ups, but we also identified a small mistake in the notation of his paper that will be corrected.
|
||||
|
||||
\item Thanks to community donations to the Forum Funding System, hired Sarang Noether! He recently graduated with his Ph.D.\ in Computational Physics (and has a strong background in pure and applied mathematics, computer science, and network security) and was a contributor to MRL several years back. We are already enjoying his contribution to our work. We are extremely grateful that the community has welcomed him; he was facing several competitive offers for some very interesting and varied jobs in a few different engineering sectors, so we are lucky to have sniped him away from the traditional economy!
|
||||
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Conclusion}
|
||||
|
||||
We request members of the community contribute their opinions on our above work and ideas they would like to see added. Please do not hesitate to contact us. We will make the current threshold MRL Bulletin (which will be MRL-0006) available on the MRL github upon publication of this quarterly update so that contributors and community members can monitor our progress on that front.
|
||||
|
||||
In the next four weeks, we anticipate MRL-R002 roadmap to be put out, the second draft of the zero-knowledge literature review with Jeffrey Quesnelle to be made available to the community, and MRL-0006 to be completed and put out (unless the novelty of the security proofs becomes a rabbit hole of uknown depth). We also anticipate that the RTRS Ring Confidential Transaction scheme to be finished prototyping and beginning testing very soon. Once MRL-0006 is finished, we will begin an MRL Research Bulletin describing the sub-address scheme invented by \texttt{kenshi84} and \texttt{knaccc} to be fleshed out (MRL-0007).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Special Thanks}
|
||||
|
||||
We would like to issue a special thanks to the members of the Monero community who used the GetMonero.org Forum Funding System to support the Monero Research Lab. Readers may also regard this as a statement of conflict of interest, since our funding is denominated in Monero and provided directly by members of the Monero community by the Forum Funding System.
|
||||
|
||||
\medskip{}
|
||||
|
||||
\bibliographystyle{plain}
|
||||
\bibliography{biblio.bib}
|
||||
|
||||
\end{document}
|
||||
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485
publications/bulletins/in-prog/MRL-9999-lrtm-schemes/thresh.tex
Normal file
485
publications/bulletins/in-prog/MRL-9999-lrtm-schemes/thresh.tex
Normal file
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,485 @@
|
|||
\documentclass{mrl}
|
||||
\usepackage{enumerate}
|
||||
\usepackage{todo}
|
||||
|
||||
\theoremstyle{definition}
|
||||
\newtheorem{theorem}{Theorem}[subsection]
|
||||
\newtheorem{defn}[theorem]{Definition}
|
||||
\newtheorem{disc}[theorem]{Remark}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\title{Ring Threshold Multisignature Schemes and Security Models}
|
||||
\authors{Brandon Goodell\footnote{\texttt{surae.noether@protonmail.com}} and Sarang Noether\footnote{\texttt{sarang.noether@protonmail.com}}}
|
||||
\affiliations{Monero Research Lab}
|
||||
\date{\today}
|
||||
|
||||
\type{RESEARCH BULLETIN}
|
||||
\ident{MRL-XXXX}
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{document}
|
||||
|
||||
% Title area
|
||||
%\hfill\includegraphics[width=100px]{logo.png}
|
||||
%\newline
|
||||
%\noindent\colorbox{bloo}{\parbox{\textwidth}{{\sffamily\color{white}RESEARCH BULLETIN \hfill MRL-9999a}}}
|
||||
%\vskip 10pt
|
||||
%\noindent{\Large Ring Threshold Multisignature Schemes and Security Models}
|
||||
%\vskip 5pt
|
||||
%\noindent{Brandon Goodell\footnote{\texttt{surae.noether@protonmail.com}} and Sarang Noether}
|
||||
%\newline
|
||||
%\noindent{Monero Research Lab}
|
||||
%\newline
|
||||
%\noindent{\today}
|
||||
|
||||
%\begin{frontmatter}
|
||||
%\begin{abstractbox}
|
||||
\begin{abstract}
|
||||
This research bulletin extends \cite{noether2016ring} by constructing a $t$-of-$n$ threshold multi-layered linkable spontaneous anonymous group signature scheme ($t$-of-$n$ MLSAG) in the same style as the LSAG schemes put forth by \cite{liu2004linkable}. %We present security models for this scheme, present security proofs in those models, describe an implementation, and explain some use-cases for the scheme in cryptocurrencies.
|
||||
\end{abstract}
|
||||
%\end{abstractbox}
|
||||
%\end{frontmatter}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Introduction and Background}
|
||||
|
||||
Ring signatures can play a critical role in promoting user anonymity (or at least user ambiguity) during message authentication. A one-time signature scheme inserts a barrier between user key pairs and one-time signature key pairs. Due to this utility, one-time ring signature schemes enjoy application in many cryptocurrency protocols. Multisignatures play a critical role in off-chain transactions for cryptocurrencies (e.g.\ the Bitcoin Lightning Network) and for message authentication in general (e.g.\ multi-factor authentication). A $t$-of-$N$ threshold multisignature scheme specifies sets containing $N$ public keys and thresholds $t$ such that any subset with at least $t$ elements may collaborate to fashion a signature. A usual digital signature scheme is a $1$-of-$1$ multisignature scheme, so we can regard all keys as shared public keys (just perhaps with a coalition of only one member). It is therefore natural to extend the notion of ring signatures to ring threshold multisignatures for implementation in cryptocurrencies to enjoy signer-ambiguous multisignatures.
|
||||
|
||||
A multisignature scheme is a $t$-of-$N$ \textit{ring threshold multisignature} (RTM) scheme if any set of $N$ keys may be specified as a coalition of signers and assigned a shared public key $X_{\texttt{shared}}$ such that any $t$ coalition members may collaborate to fashion a ring signature. The ring of signatories $R$ contains the key $X_{\texttt{shared}}$, but an adversary cannot determine which element of $R$ computed the signature.
|
||||
|
||||
If the number of users cooperating in the construction of a signature is not secret, naive multisignature schemes can be constructed from any signature scheme (ring signature or otherwise) by simply requiring each participating user to present a separate signature. More sophisticated implementations combine these together using boolean AND circuits as in the Borromean ring set-up described in \cite{} for efficiency reasons.
|
||||
|
||||
If a user does not desire to reveal to an adversary how many devices were used for some multi-factor authentication, it should be difficult for an adversary to determine the size of a coalition behind some shared public key. This property should be satisfied even if the adversary can persuade the party (or parties) controlling the shared public key to sign arbitrary messages chosen by the adversary. We introduce the security definition of \textit{coalition-indistinguishable} multisignature schemes against adaptive chosen message attacks: given a shared $t$-of-$N$ public key $X_{\texttt{shared}}$, an adversary should be unable to guess any information about $t$ or $N$. %This property cannot be satisfied if the adversary has corrupted any public key in the coalition. If some coalition member for $X$, say $X^{\prime}$, is a shared $t^{\prime}$-of-$N^{\prime}$ public key, this means that if the adversary has corrupted $t^{\prime}$ or more members of the coalition for $X^{\prime}$, then coalition-indistinguishability is impossible. Thus we investigate the notion of \textit{subthreshold corruption oracle access}.
|
||||
|
||||
%Moreover, for multifactor authentication purposes, $(N-1)$-of-$N$ and $N$-of-$N$ schemes are of particular interest. Due to this, we consider only $t$-of-$N$ threshold ring signatures with $N-1 \leq t \leq N$, with $t > 1$, and with $N > 1$.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Our Contribution}
|
||||
|
||||
We consider a formal definition of one-time linkable ring threshold multisignature (OT-LRTM) schemes. We investigate modifications to security definitions that take threshold behaviors into account and a new security model. We describe a modified implementation of $t$-of-$N$ linkable ring threshold multisignature (under the restriction $N-1 \leq t \leq N$) first described by previous MRL contributors Shen Noether in \cite{noether2016ring} and implemented for use in Monero by contributor \texttt{Luigi}, and we prove that this implementation satisfies our security definitions.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Notation and Prerequisites}
|
||||
|
||||
We let $\mathbb{G}$ be a group with prime order $\mathfrak{q}$ and we let $G$ denote a commonly known point with order $\mathfrak{q}$. Denote the user and transaction key spaces, respectively, as $\mathcal{K}_{\texttt{user}}, \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{txn}}$. In implementations involving cryptocurrencies, there exists a function $\texttt{dest}:\mathcal{K}_{\texttt{txn}} \to \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{user}}$ describing the user key pair to whom a certain transaction key pair is addressed. For any transaction key pair $(q,Q) \in \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{txn}}$, we say $\texttt{dest}(q,Q)$ is the \textit{destination} user key pair for $(q,Q)$. We sometimes write $Q$ as $Q_X$ to emphasize the destination user key $X$ associated with the transaction key $Q$.
|
||||
%We denote the message space $\mathcal{M}=\left\{0,1\right\}^*$. We let $\mathbb{G}$ be an additive group with prime order $q$ an an arbitrary generator $G$. We denote $H_{\mathcal{X},\mathcal{Y}}(-)$ as a cryptographic hash function from the space $\mathcal{X}$ to $\mathcal{Y}$. For example $H_{\mathbb{G},\mathbb{Z}_q}(-)$ is a cryptographic point-to-scalar function. We assume that any two hash functions $H_{\mathcal{X},\mathcal{Y}}(-)$ and $H_{\mathcal{X}^{\prime},\mathcal{Y}^{\prime}}(-)$ are statistically independent.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{MLSAG and Straightforward Threshold Set-ups}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
We briefly describe LSAG ring signatures in the sense of \cite{liu2004linkable} and their MLSAG variant used in Monero, and then a straightforward implementation of an LRTM scheme.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{MLSAGs}
|
||||
|
||||
A user with user key pair $(y,Y)$ wishes to spend an old transaction output with private-public transaction key pair $(q,Q) \in \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{txn}}$ such that $\texttt{dest}(q,Q) = (y,Y)$. The user constructs an appropriate message $M$, a destination user key $X$, computes the key image $J = qH_p(Q)$, and selects a ring of public transaction keys $R=\left\{Q_1, \ldots Q_L\right\}$ such that, for a secret distinguished index $k$, $Q_{k}=Q$. For each $i=1,\ldots,L$, the signer computes an elliptic curve point from the $i^{th}$ ring member public key as $H_i := H_{p}(Q_i)$. The signer selects a random secret scalar $u$, computes an initial temporary pair of points $uG$ and $uH_{k}$, and computes an initial commitment $c_{k+1} := H_{p}(M,uG, uH_k)$.
|
||||
|
||||
The signer sequentially proceeds through indices $i=k+1, k+2, \ldots, n, 1, 2, \ldots, k-1$ in the following way. The signer selects a random scalar $s_i$, computes the next temporary pair of points $s_iG + c_i Q_i$ and $s_i H_i + c_i J$, and computes the next commitment $c_{i+1}:=H_{p}(m,s_i G + c_i Q_i, s_i H_i + c_i J)$. The signer continues proceeding through the set of keys until commitments $c_i$ have been computed for each $i=1, \ldots, L$. The signer then computes $s_{k}:=u - c_{k}q_{k}$ and publishes the signature $\sigma=(c_1, s_1, \ldots, s_n)$ and the key image $J$ in a signature-tag pair $(\sigma, J)$.
|
||||
|
||||
A signature-tag pair $(\sigma^*, J^*)$ on $m$ can be verified to have been generated by at least one ring member in the following way: for each $i=1,2,\ldots, L$, the verifier computes $z_{i} = s_i^* G + c_i^* Q_i$ and $z_{i}^{\prime} = s_i^* H_i + c_i^* J^*$ and uses these to compute the $(i+1)^{th}$ commitment $c_{i+1} = H_{p}(m, z_i, z^{\prime}_i)$. After computing $c_2, c_3, \ldots, c_L, c_1$, the verifier approves of the signature if and only if $c_1 = c_1^*$. A verifier can check against double spends by comparing the key images of two signature-tag pairs.
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{disc}
|
||||
The MLSAG generalization, where transaction keys are represented by vectors, is straightforward. With transaction keys $\underline{q}=(q_1,\ldots,q_w)$, each component of $\underline{q}$ is used to generate a temporary pair of points starting with $u_jG$, $u_j H_k$ and then $s_{j,i} G + c_{i} Q_{j,i}$, $s_{j,i} H_{j,i} + c_{i} J$, providing the associated commitments
|
||||
\[c_{i+1}:=H_{p}\left(m,\left\{(s_{j,i} G + c_i Q_{j,i}, s_{j,i} H_{j,i} + c_i J)\right\}_{j=1}^{w}\right).\]
|
||||
\end{disc}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{disc}
|
||||
Note that user keys are not used above except as a destination for the transaction key. Anyone with a destination public user key in mind and knowledge of a transaction private key may fashion a signature like the one above. In the reference CryptoNote protocol, the private transaction key $q$ associated to some public transaction key $Q$ is only feasibly computable by a user who knows the private destination user key in $\texttt{dest}(q,Q)$ or by an adversary who can solve the discrete logarithm problem.
|
||||
\end{disc}
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Extending to Threshold Signatures} \label{naiveImplement}
|
||||
|
||||
Note that a $1$-of-$N$ threshold signature scheme may be accomplished by simply handing out an identical set of keys to $N$ individuals: whoever decides to use them first will be able to fashion a signature. We consider this a degenerate case. On the other hand, a $1$-of-$1$ signature scheme is a usual signature scheme, as we mentioned.
|
||||
|
||||
Generally, we wish to allow a coalition of (distinct) public user keys $C=\left\{X_{1}, X_{2}, \ldots, X_{N}\right\} \subseteq \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{user}}$ (where each $X_i = x_iG$) to collaboratively fashion a shared public user key $X_{\texttt{shared}}$ such that, for any transaction key pair $(q,Q) \in \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{txn}}$ such that $\texttt{dest}(q,Q) = X_{\texttt{shared}}$, any subset of at least $t$ of the users in $C$ can collaborate to fashion a signature on a message $M$ corresponding to public transaction key $Q$. Certainly we wish that no member of $C$ reveal their own private user key $x_i$, but moreover we wish that coalition members cannot feasibly learn the private transaction key $q$.
|
||||
|
||||
In the $N$-of-$N$ case, we may use CryptoNote-styled user and transaction keys to see an example implementation. For this example, we assume user private-public key pairs $(x,X)$ take the form $x=(a,b)$ for some scalars $a$, $b$ and $X=(A,B)$ where $A=aG$ and $B=bG$ for some common point $G$. The private-public transaction key pair $(q,Q)$ takes the form $Q=(S,P)$, $q=(s,p)$ where $s$ is a scalar, $S=sG$, $p=H_s(aR)+b$, and $P=pG$. Given message $M$, a coalition of user keys $C$, the coalition members compute their shared public key as $X_{\texttt{shared}} := \sum_{j=1}^{N} X_j$, which is published. Assume $(q,Q)=((s,p),(S,P))$ is a transaction key pair such that $\texttt{dest}(q,Q) = X_{\texttt{shared}}$.
|
||||
|
||||
The coalition $C$ selects a ring of public transaction keys $\mathcal{R} = \left\{Q_1, Q_2, \ldots, Q_L\right\}$ such that $Q = Q_{k}$ for some secret index $k$. For each $j=1, \ldots, N$, the $j^{th}$ coalition member in $C$ computes a partial key image $J_j = (H_s(a_j S) + b_j)\cdot H_p(Q)$, picks a random secret scalar $u_j$, and computes $H_i = H_{p}(Q_i)$ for each $Q_i \in R$. The coalition $C$ computes the key image $J = \sum_j J_j$, the random points $u_{k} G = \sum_j u_{j} G$, and $u_{k} H_{k}= \sum_j u_{j} H_{k}$. The coalition $C$ decides upon random values $s_{k+1}, \ldots, s_{L}, s_1, \ldots, s_{k-1}$. Using these, any member in $C$ may compute the commitments
|
||||
\begin{align*}
|
||||
c_{k+1} :=& H_{p}(m, u_k G, u_k H_k) \text{ and}\\
|
||||
c_{i+1} :=& H_{p}(m, s_{i} G + c_i P_i, s_{i} H_i + c_i J)\text{ for }i=k+1, \ldots, k-1.
|
||||
\end{align*}
|
||||
All coalition members then use $c_k$ to compute their personal $s_{k,j} = u_j - c_{k} (H_s(a_j S) + b_j)$. The signers share their $s_{k,j}$ with the other signers. Any threshold member may then compute the value $s_{k} = \sum_j s_{k,j}$ and publish the signature-tag pair $(\sigma, J)$ where $\sigma = (c_1, s_1, \ldots, s_L)$ as usual. Any user may verify this signature corresponds to the $N$-of-$N$ shared public key $X_{\texttt{shared}}$ using the same method as above.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
This implementation satisfies our immediate two properties: members in $C$ do not learn the private transaction key $q=\sum_j H_s(a_j S) + b_j$ and do not reveal their own private keys. Assuming at least one contributing user key in $C$ was honestly generated from a uniform random scalar, an adversary who has learned a public threshold address cannot determine the number of summands contributing to it, let alone determine the summands.
|
||||
|
||||
This set-up extends naturally to an $(N-1)$-of-$N$ set-up. As before, a set of $N$ public keys $\left\{X_{1}, X_{2}, \ldots, X_{N}\right\}$ form a coalition. Each pair of users has a shared secret scalar $z_{i,j} = H_{s}(x_i X_j)$ with associated point $Z_{ij} = z_{i,j}G$. There are $\frac{N(N-1)}{2}$ such pairs; if any $N-1$ members get together, all of the associated shared secrets are known. Hence, we may simply instantiate the $(N-1)$-of-$N$ threshold as an $N^*$-of-$N^*$ set-up with $N^* = \frac{N(N-1)}{2}$. All values $Z_{i,j}$ are necessary to compute the shared public user key, $Z_{\texttt{shared}}$ and all values of $z_{i,j}$ are necessary to fashion a signature with a public transaction key $Q$ with $\texttt{dest}(Q)=Z_{\texttt{shared}}$.
|
||||
|
||||
%Coalition members certainly do not want to reveal their secret keys during participation, but dually, coalitions may not want the fact that an address has been collaboratively fashioned to be publicized. We should prefer, then, that implementations produce keys and signatures that are indistinguishable by an adversary from a usual signature scheme. We discuss this in more detail later.
|
||||
\begin{disc}\label{remark:recursion}
|
||||
Note that the above extension works for coalitions containing $t$-of-$N$ keys also. For example, when the $j^{th}$ coalition member computes the partial key image $J_j$, if this coalition member is some sub-coalition, then each member of the sub-coalition can compute their own partial key image $J_{j,k}$ and the sub-coalition can report the sum $J_j = \sum_k J_{j,k}$. In this manner, signatures involving nested coalitions may be executed recursively. We elaborate on this in Section \ref{sec:otlrtm}.
|
||||
\end{disc}
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{disc}\label{hashed-keys}
|
||||
Note that an adversary with knowledge of some set of public keys can compute the sums of all subsets to brute-force test whether a certain user key $X$ is a threshold key. Using hash functions and encrypt-then-authenticate communication, we may resolve the brute force problem.
|
||||
|
||||
Consider modifying the $N$-of-$N$ implementation by having coalition members select secret scalars $\mu_j$ associated with the threshold $t$ and coalition $C$, e.g.:
|
||||
\[\mu_j = H_s(\text{``multisig constant for escrow at local coffee shop''}, \texttt{secret salt})\]
|
||||
Now merely require that participating members not use their private user keys in the construction of their shared user key pair, but instead the $i^{th}$ coalition member selects a constant $\mu_i$ associated with their coalition and instead uses $x^*_i = H(x_i, \mu_i)$ as their private key (or in the $(N-1)$-of-$N$ case, computing $z^*_{i,j} = H_s(x_i^* X_j^*)$ instead of $z_{i,j} = H_s(x_i X_j)$ and communicating the points $Z^*_{i,j}$ to the coalition).
|
||||
|
||||
With this modification, an adversary cannot use strictly public information to determine if a certain key is a threshold key or not. The possibility remains that the adversary may overhear the associated public points $X^*_i$ (or $Z^*_{i,j}$) being communicated within the coalition, allowing the adversary to fall back on the brute force approach again. Hence, the points $X^*_i$ (or $Z^*_{i,j}$) should be communicated with a secure encrypt-then-authenticate scheme. Note that either step alone (hashing, then encrypt-then-authenticating) is insufficient to prevent the adversary from using brute force.
|
||||
\end{disc}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Security Models}
|
||||
|
||||
%In this section we present definitions we use later on. Any signature scheme requires unforgeability. Moreover, a ring signature scheme requires signature ambiguity. In a threshold multisignature scheme, coalitions of users collaborate to generate new threshold keys from sets of old keys and to generate signatures on messages using those threshold keys. A linkable signature
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{One-Time Linkable Ring Threshold Multisignatures}\label{sec:otlrtm}
|
||||
|
||||
We begin by defining a one-time linkable ring threshold multisignature (OT-LRTM) scheme. A central idea to our security models is that a coalition of user keys may be merged into a new user key, which may then be again merged with other user keys.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{defn}{[One-Time Linkable Ring Threshold Multisignature Scheme]}\label{OT-LRTM} A one-time linkable ring threshold multisignature scheme is a set of PPT algorithms, (\texttt{UserKeyGen}, \texttt{TxnKeyGen}, \texttt{Merge},\texttt{Sign},\texttt{Verify}, \texttt{Link}) that, respectively, generates usual private-public keypairs for users, generates public transaction keys, merges user keys into new shared user keys, fashions signatures on messages given a ring of public transaction keys, verifies signatures, and links signatures. Formally:
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[(i)]
|
||||
\item $\texttt{UserKeyGen}(1^\lambda)$ outputs a random user key pair $(x,X)$ called a \textit{$1$-of-$1$ user key pair} where $x$ is a private user key with associated public user key $X$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item $\texttt{Merge}(t,C)$ takes as input a positive integer (threshold) $t$ and coalition of private-public user keypairs $C=\left\{(x_1,X_1), (x_2,X_2), \ldots, (x_n,X_N)\right\}$ and outputs a public user key $X_{t,C}$ called a \textit{$t$-of-$N$ user key pair} or a \textit{shared user key pair}.
|
||||
|
||||
\item $\texttt{TxnKeyGen}(1^\lambda, X)$ takes as input a public user key $X$ called the \textit{destination key}. A one-time random private-public transaction key pair $(q_X,Q_X)$ is generated. $\texttt{TxnKeyGen}$ outputs $Q_X$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item $\texttt{ImageGen}(1^\lambda, Q, y)$ takes as input a public transaction key $Q$ with a set of private user keys $y = \left\{x_1, \ldots\right\}$ and outputs a point $J_Q$ called the \textit{key image} for the private transaction key $q$ and outputs $J_Q$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item $\texttt{Sign}(M,X,R,k, y)$ takes as input message $M$, a destination user key $X$, ring of public transaction keys $R=\left\{Q_1, \ldots, Q_L\right\}$, secret index $k$, and a set of private user keys $y$. $\texttt{Sign}$ obtains $Q \leftarrow \texttt{TxnKeyGen}(1^\lambda, X)$, $J \leftarrow \texttt{ImageGen}(1^\lambda, Q, y)$. $\texttt{Sign}$ generates a signature $\sigma$ and publishes the signature-image pair $(\sigma, J)$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item $\texttt{Verify}(M,R,\sigma)$ takes as input a message $M$, a ring of public transaction keys $R$, and a signature $\sigma$, and outputs a bit $b \in \left\{0,1\right\}$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item $\texttt{Link}((M_0,R_0,(\sigma_0, J_0)), (M_1,R_1,(\sigma_1, J_1)))$ takes as input two (possibly distinct) messages, two (possibly distinct) rings of transaction public keys, and two signature-image pairs. $\texttt{Link}$ outputs a bit $b \in \left\{0,1\right\}$.
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
\end{defn}
|
||||
|
||||
Note that a $1$-of-$1$ user key may be regarded as a ``usual'' user key in a one-time linkable ring signature scheme. In this way, we may regard all user keys as $t$-of-$N$ shared user keys by simply regarding $1$-of-$1$ keys as having a coalition of a single member. We consider only \textit{restricted} OT-LRTM schemes where $\texttt{Merge}$ is modified such that (i) if $t=1$ and $\left|C\right| = 1$, then $\texttt{Merge}$ returns the public user key in $C$, (ii) if the inequalities $2 \leq N-1 \leq t \leq N$ do not hold then $\texttt{Merge}$ outputs $\bot$ instead of a key.
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{defn}
|
||||
Assume for each $i=0,1$, $M_i$ is an arbitrary message, $X_i$ is an arbitrary $t_i$-of-$N_i$ shared public user key with coalition $C_i$, $R_i=\left\{Q_{i,j}\right\}_{j=1}^{\left|R_i\right|}$ is an arbitrary ring of public transaction keys with associated secret indices $k_i$ such that $\texttt{dest}(Q_{i,k_i}) = X_i$, each $y_i$ is a set of private user keys such that $y_i \subseteq C_i$ and $t_i \leq \left|y_i\right|$, and each signature-tag pair $(\sigma_i, J_i)$ is honestly generated as $(\sigma_i, J_i) \leftarrow \texttt{Sign}(M_i,X_i,R_i,k_i,y_i)$. We say an OT-LRTM scheme is \textit{complete} if
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[(a)]
|
||||
\item $\texttt{VER}(M_i,R_i,(\sigma_i,J_i)) = 1$ and
|
||||
\item if $Q_{i,k_i} = Q_{j,k_j}$ then $\texttt{LNK}((\sigma_i, J_i), (\sigma_j, J_j))=1$.
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
\end{defn}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Recall Remark \ref{hashed-keys} and consider the hash-then-encrypt-then-authenticate approach to computing shared public keys. We let $\Pi = (\texttt{UserKeyGen}^*,\texttt{Enc}^*, \texttt{Auth}^*, \texttt{Ver}^*, \texttt{Dec}^*)$ be a secure encrypt-then-authenticate scheme (where $\Pi_{\texttt{enc}} = (\texttt{Gen}^*,\texttt{Enc}^*, \texttt{Dec}^*)$ is a secure encryption sub-scheme and $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}} = (\texttt{Gen}^*,\texttt{Auth}^*, \texttt{Ver}^*)$ is a secure message authentication sub-scheme). Augmenting the implementation of Section \ref{naiveImplement} with $\Pi$ allows the coalition for $X_{\texttt{shared}}$ to compute the appropriate values to participate in the signing of a message in a recursive fashion. To see how, note that when the implementation of Section \ref{naiveImplement} is carried out, this $t$-of-$N$ shared public user key $X_{\texttt{shared}}$ must first compute the partial key image, next select a random secret scalar $u_j$, then compute the commitments $c_k$, and finally must compute the value $s_{k,j} = u_j - c_k (H_s(a_j R) + b_j)$.
|
||||
|
||||
Denote the coalition of user key pairs for $X_{\texttt{shared}}$ as $\left\{((a_{j}, b_{j}), (A_{j}, B_{j}))\right\}$. The coalition for $X_\texttt{shared}$ may use $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}}$ to share their $(H_s(a_{j} S) + b_{j})\cdot H_p(Q)$ and compute the key image $J = (\sum_j H_s(a_{j})S + b_{j}) H_p(Q)$. If some index, say $j$, corresponds to a user key pair $((a_j,b_j),(A_j,B_j))$ that is a $t_j$-of-$N_j$ public key, then the secrets $a_j$ and $b_j$ are not known by the coalition and so the $j^{th}$ share of the key image, $J_j$, must be collaboratively computed by at least $t_j$ coalition members for the shared key $((a_j,b_j),(A_j,B_j))$. Denote the coalition for this key as $\left\{((a_{j,i}, b_{j,i}), (A_{j,i}, B_{j,i}))\right\}_{i=1}^{N_j}$. Each member computes their share, $J_{j,i} = (H_s(a_{j,i} S) + b_{j,i})H_p(Q)$, this sub-coalition uses $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}}$ to compute $J_j = \sum_i J_{j,i}$, and the sub-coalition reports $J_j$ when prompted.
|
||||
|
||||
Similarly the random scalar $u_j$ is computed as a sum $u_j = \sum_i u_{j,i}$ using $\Pi$. Now any of these coalition members may compute the commitments $c_k$ and disseminate this to the rest of the coalition with $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}}$. At that point each member of the coalition may compute their individual $s_{k,j,i} = u_{j,i} - c_k x_{j,i}$ and the coalition may use $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}}$ to compute $s_{k,j} = \sum_i s_{k,j,i}$. In this way, sub-coalitions are simply handled recursively.
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{disc}
|
||||
If an OT-LTRM scheme is secure under the CIK model from Definition \ref{threshIndist} in Section \ref{subsec:CIK}, then it is not feasible for any PPT algorithm to check whether the keys used as input for $\texttt{Merge}$ are $1$-of-$1$, so modifying the straightforward implementation by banning composite coalition keys is not feasible. Recursion seems to be a natural design choice.
|
||||
\end{disc}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Coalition Indistinguishable Keys} \label{subsec:CIK}
|
||||
|
||||
Definition \ref{threshIndist} formalizes the idea that an adversary should not be able to determine information about the input of $\texttt{Merge}$ based on its output except with negligible probability. %Although we focus on restricted OT-LRTM schemes, and where thresholds are bounded by $N-1 \leq t \leq N$, this is a general definition that applies more broadly than the restricted case. %Definition \ref{threshIndist} emphasizes the idea that the \textit{method of collaboratively fashioning keys} is not easily discernible by an adversary.
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{defn}[Coalition Indistinguishable Keys]\label{threshIndist} Let $\mathcal{A}$ be a PPT adversary. Let $N(-)$, $L(-)$ be polynomials.
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[(i)]
|
||||
\item A set of user key pairs $S^* \subseteq \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{user}}$ with $\left|S\right|=N(\lambda)$ is generated where the $i^{th}$ key pair is $t_i$-of-$N_i$ public user key for some $2 \leq t_i \leq N_i \leq L(\lambda)$. The set of public keys $S = \left\{X_i \mid \exists (x_i, X_i) \in S^*\right\}$ is sent to $\mathcal{A}$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item $\mathcal{A}$ outputs $(\tau_0,C_0)$ where $C_0 \subseteq S$, $\tau_0 \in \mathbb{N}$, and $\tau_0 \leq \left|C_0\right|$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item A random pair $(\tau_1, C_1)$ is selected where $C_1 \subseteq S$, $\tau_1 \in \mathbb{N}$, $\tau_0 \neq \tau_1$, and $C_1 \neq C_0$. A random bit $b$ is selected. The key $X_{\tau_b,C_b} \leftarrow \texttt{Merge}(\tau_b, C_b)$ is sent to $\mathcal{A}$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item $\mathcal{A}$ outputs a bit $b^{\prime}$. This counts as a success if $b=b^{\prime}$.
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
We say an OT-LRTM scheme has Coalition Indistinguishable Keys (CIK) if the adversary can succeed with probability only negligibly more than $1/2$.
|
||||
\end{defn}
|
||||
|
||||
%We make some remarks on the straightforward $N$-of-$N$ implementation in Section \ref{naiveImplement}.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{disc}
|
||||
Even taking the above modification into account, each $H_s(X_j, \mu_j)G$ must be communicated to the coalition. An adversary who can learn these points may simply check whether a given public key $X$ is the sum of some observed values of $H_s(X_j, \mu_j)G$, determining non-trivial information about coalition size. Hence, these points should be communicated with $\Pi$ if an OT-LRTM scheme is to satisfy Definition \ref{threshIndist}.
|
||||
\end{disc}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{disc}
|
||||
We may be tempted to strengthen Definition \ref{threshIndist} to take into account corruption oracle access on the part of the adversary. Unfortunately this leads to certain problems with the security definition. However, by using the hash-then-encrypt-then-authenticate method of computing shared public keys, without knowledge of the values of $\mu_j$, even if the adversary corrupts all the public keys in $S$, then $\mathcal{A}$ cannot successfully run $\texttt{Merge}$ for each value $1 \leq t \leq \left|S\right|$ to check the results by hand in comparison against the key $X_{t_b,C_b}$. Thus, if the participating coalition members keep each $\mu_j$ and $\mu_j G$ secret, then even a very powerful adversary with oracle access for computing discrete logs will still be unable to discern whether some user key is a coalition key or not.
|
||||
\end{disc}
|
||||
%In \cite{bender2006ring}, anonymity in ring signatures assumes at least two honest users in each ring, because if the adversary controls all keys except a single key controlled by an honest user, that adversary can certainly identify whether that honest user fashioned a signature! %The adversary does not even need to know private information to violate coalition indistinguishability. %In fact, by merely knowing the CryptoNote public view key of a set $S$ of $N$ possible signers, an adversary may trivially check if some CryptoNote key pair $(A,B)$ is an $N$-of-$N$ key pair for the coalition $S$.
|
||||
|
||||
%If granted corruption oracle access, any threshold subset of a coalition will also degrade coalition indistinguishability. To see why, assume the adversary is granted access to a corruption oracle and has corrupted a threshold subset of $S$. The adversary will then be able to construct valid signatures without the signing oracle, and will be able to conclude some information about the threshold, allowing for non-negligible success probability in the game of Definition \ref{threshIndist}.
|
||||
|
||||
%Although we cannot strengthen Definition \ref{threshIndist} to take into account corruption by the adversary,
|
||||
\subsection{Signer Ambiguity}
|
||||
|
||||
In addition to coalition indistinguishability, we desire the ring signature property of \textit{signer ambiguity}. Variations of security models appear in \cite{bender2006ring}.
|
||||
|
||||
Double spend protection in Monero relies on a one-time linkable ring signature scheme that is not signer ambiguous with respect to adversarially generated keys according to the definition presented in \cite{bender2006ring}. Indeed, in Monero, $\texttt{Link}$ simply checks if two key images $J_i$ are identical. In this way, the signer ambiguity game falls apart: $\mathcal{A}$ can obtain signature-tag pair $(\sigma_0, J_0)$ on $M_0$ using ring $R_0$ with $Q_{i_0} \in R_0$ and a pair $(\sigma_1, J_1)$ on $M_1$ using ring $R_1$ with $Q_{i_1} \in R_1$. Then, upon receipt of $(\sigma,J)$ in step (v), $\mathcal{A}$ can check if $J=J_0$ or $J=J_1$. The definition may be modified, however, to take key images into account.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Let $\mathcal{SO}(-,-,-,-)$ be a signing oracle that takes as input $(M,X,R,k)$ (a message, a destination public user key, a ring of public transaction keys, and an index $k$) and outputs a valid signature-tag pair $(\sigma, J) \leftarrow \texttt{Sign}(M,X,R,k,y)$ for some set $y$ of private user keys.
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{defn}{[Linkable Signer Ambiguity v. Adversarially Generated Keys]}\label{def:ambig} Let $N(-), L(-)$ be a positive polynomial. Let $\mathcal{A}$ be a PPT adversary. Let $\mathcal{A}$ have access to $\mathcal{SO}$. Consider the following game:
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[(i)]
|
||||
|
||||
\item A set of user key pairs $S^* \subseteq \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{user}}$ is selected with $\left|S^*\right| = N(\lambda)$. The public keys in $S^*$ are sent to $\mathcal{A}$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item $\mathcal{A}$ outputs a set of user key pairs $S \subseteq S^*$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item For each public user key $X_i \in S$, a public transaction key $Q^*_i \leftarrow \texttt{TxnKeyGen}(1^\lambda, X_i)$ is generated and the set $R^* := \left\{Q^*_i\right\}$ is generated, randomly permuted, and then sent to $\mathcal{A}$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item $\mathcal{A}$ selects a message $M$, a destination public user key $X \in \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{user}}$, a ring of transaction public keys $R=\left\{Q_1, \ldots, Q_L\right\} \subseteq \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{txn}}$, and two indices $i_0 \neq i_1$ such that $\left\{Q_{i_0}, Q_{i_1}\right\} \subseteq R^* \cap R$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item A random bit $b$ is chosen. The signature-tag pair $(\sigma,J) \leftarrow \mathcal{SO}(M,X,R,i_b)$ is sent to $\mathcal{A}$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item $\mathcal{A}$ outputs a bit $b^{\prime}$. The game counts as a success if (a) $b = b^{\prime}$ and (b) if $(M^{\prime},X^{\prime},R^{\prime},i)$ is a query from $\mathcal{A}$ to $\mathcal{SO}$, then the $i^{th}$ element of $R^{\prime}$ is not $Q_{i_0}$ or $Q_{i_1}$.
|
||||
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
We say the scheme is \textit{linkably signer ambiguous against adversarially generated keys} (LSA-AGK) if the probability that $\mathcal{A}$ succeeds is negligibly close to $1/2$ (with respect to $\lambda$).
|
||||
\end{defn}
|
||||
|
||||
Definition \ref{def:ambig} essentially modifies the signer ambiguity game in \cite{bender2006ring} by adding requirements in step (vi) requiring that $\mathcal{A}$ see in step (v) either the key image for $Q_{i_0}$ or the key image for $Q_{i_1}$ for the first time.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Unforgeability}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Unforgeability of any threshold signature scheme must take into account subthreshold corruption oracle access. Multisignatures must not be forgeable by a subthreshold collection of malicious coalition members, otherwise they have no utility as signatures, of course. A naive definition may be something like this:
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{defn}{[Prototype: Subthreshold Oracle Access]}\label{def:prot:subthresh}
|
||||
Given a $S = \left\{X_1, \ldots, X_N\right\} \subseteq \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{user}}$ where each $X_i \in S$ is a $t_i$-of-$N_i$ public user key, we say that any PPT adversary $\mathcal{A}$ with access to an oracle $\mathcal{O}(-)$ has had \textit{subthreshold oracle access} to $S$ if, for any $X_i \in S$, at most $t_{i}-1$ coalition members for $X_i$ appear in the transcript between $\mathcal{A}$ and $\mathcal{O}(-)$.
|
||||
\end{defn}
|
||||
|
||||
However, since $\texttt{Merge}$ allows inputs of arbitrary (possibly threshold) user keys, this definition is insufficient. %In fact, we must define the \textit{depth} of public keys to handle this issue appropriately. We say a user key pair resulting from $\texttt{UserKeyGen}$ has \texttt{depth} $0$. We define the depth of a user key $X_{\texttt{shared}} \leftarrow \texttt{Merge}(t,C)$ as $\texttt{depth}(X_{\texttt{shared}}) = \max\left\{\texttt{depth}(Y) \mid Y \in C\right\} + 1$.
|
||||
For notational convenience, we call $\mathcal{M}(-)$ an oracle that inverts $\texttt{Merge}$ by taking as input a public $t$-of-$N$ key $X$ and producing as output $(t,C)$, the threshold $t$ and coalition $C$ such that $X = \texttt{Merge}(t,C)$. For any subset $S \subseteq \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{user}}$, define $\mathcal{M}(S) = \cup_{Y \in S} \mathcal{M}(Y)$. This provides the iterative definition $\mathcal{M}^{i+1}(S) = \cup_{Y \in S}\mathcal{M}^{i}(Y)$. Define $\mathcal{M}^{\leftarrow}(Y) := \cup_i \mathcal{M}^i(Y)$.
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{defn}{[Subthreshold Oracle Access]}\label{def:prot:subthresh}
|
||||
Let $S$ be a set of public user keys $S = \left\{X_1, \ldots, X_N\right\}$ where each $X_i$ is a $t_i$-of-$N_i$ public user key. We say that any PPT adversary $\mathcal{A}$ with access to an oracle $\mathcal{O}(-)$ has had \textit{subthreshold oracle access} to $S$ if, for any public user key $Y \in \mathcal{M}^{\leftarrow}(S)$, if $Y$ is a $t_Y$-of-$N_Y$ shared public user key, then at most $t_{Y}-1$ coalition members from $\mathcal{M}(Y)$ appear in the transcript between $\mathcal{A}$ and $\mathcal{O}(-)$.
|
||||
\end{defn}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
%
|
||||
|
||||
%In this definition, we grant $\mathcal{A}$ access to $\mathcal{SO}$ as before but also $\mathcal{CO}_{\texttt{user}}(-)$, a user key corruption oracle. $\mathcal{CO}_{\texttt{user}}(-)$ accepts as input a public user key and produces as output the associated private user key.
|
||||
|
||||
Also for notational convenience, we call $\mathcal{T}(-)$ an oracle that inverts $\texttt{TxnKeyGen}$ by taking as input a public transaction key $Q_X$ and produces as output the user key $X$.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
%Every signature scheme is only as useful as its unforgeability properties in the face of an adversary with corruption and signing oracle access. Previous security definitions as in \cite{bender2006ring} do not take into account threshold multisignatures. Indeed, an attacker with at most subthreshold corruption oracle access to $R$ should also be unable to forge a signature:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{defn}{[Existential Unforgeability v. Adaptive Chosen Message and Subthreshold Insider Corruption]}\label{steuf} Let $\mathcal{A}$ be a PPT adversary and $L(-)$ be polynomials. $\mathcal{A}$ is given access to a signing oracle $\mathcal{SO}$, a corruption oracle $\mathcal{CO}_{\texttt{user}}$. Consider the following game:
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[(i)]
|
||||
\item A set of user key pairs $S^* \subseteq \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{user}}$ is selected with $\left|S^*\right| = N(\lambda)$. The public keys in $S^*$ are sent to $\mathcal{A}$.
|
||||
\item $\mathcal{A}$ outputs a set of user key pairs $S \subseteq S^*$.
|
||||
\item For each public user key $X_i \in S$, a public transaction key $Q_i^* \leftarrow \texttt{TxnKeyGen}(1^\lambda, X_i)$ is generated and the set $R^* := \left\{Q_i^*\right\}$ is constructed, randomly permuted, and then sent to $\mathcal{A}$.
|
||||
\item $\mathcal{A}$ outputs a message $M$, a destination public user key $X \in \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{user}}$, ring $R \subseteq \mathcal{K}_{\texttt{txn}}$ of public transaction keys, and a signature $\sigma$. The game counts as a success if
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[(a)]
|
||||
\item $R \subseteq R^*$,
|
||||
\item $\texttt{VER}(M,R,\sigma)=1$,
|
||||
\item for each index $k$ in $R$, $(M,X,R,k)$ does not appear in the queries between $\mathcal{A}$ and $\mathcal{SO}$
|
||||
\item for each $Q_k \in R$, $\mathcal{CO}_{\texttt{user}}$ is not queried with the public user key $\mathcal{T}(Q_k)$, and
|
||||
\item $\mathcal{A}$ has had subthreshold $\mathcal{CO}_{\texttt{user}}$ access to the set $\left\{\mathcal{T}(Q_k) \mid Q_k \in R\right\}$.
|
||||
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
A scheme in which an adversary is only negligibly likely to succeed is said to be \textit{existentially unforgeable with respect to adaptive chosen message attacks and subthreshold insider corruption} (or \textit{st-EUF} for subthreshold existentially unforgeable).
|
||||
\end{defn}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Proposed Implementation}\label{sec:implement}
|
||||
|
||||
We provide an implementation of a restricted OT-LRTM scheme allowing only for $N-1 \leq t \leq N$ in the spirit of the original CryptoNote methodology. User secret keys and public keys are both ordered pairs of keys, i.e.\ private key $(a,b)$ and public key $(A,B)$. Following terminology from \cite{van2013cryptonote}, we refer to $(a,A)$ as the \textit{view keypair} and $(b,B)$ and the \textit{spend keypair}. We let $\Pi = (\texttt{Gen}^*,\texttt{Enc}^*, \texttt{Auth}^*, \texttt{Ver}^*, \texttt{Dec}^*)$ be a secure encrypt-then-authenticate scheme (where $\Pi_{\texttt{enc}} = (\texttt{Gen}^*,\texttt{Enc}^*, \texttt{Dec}^*)$ is a secure encryption sub-scheme and $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}} = (\texttt{Gen}^*,\texttt{Auth}^*, \texttt{Ver}^*)$ is a secure message authentication sub-scheme). %We use both of these schemes for computing sums, so the encryption and decryption algorithms may be taken as an homomorphic encryption scheme.
|
||||
|
||||
\texttt{UserKeyGen} generates the secret key $z=(a,b)$ by selecting $a,b$ from an i.i.d.\ uniform distribution on $\mathbb{Z}_q$, and computing $Z=(A,B)$ with $A:=aG$ and $B:=bG$. \texttt{UserKeyGen} then outputs $(z,Z)$.
|
||||
|
||||
\texttt{Merge} takes as input a threshold $t$ and a set of key pairs $C=\left\{(z_1,Z_1), \ldots, (z_n,Z_N)\right\}$ such that $2 \leq N-1 \leq t \leq N$ where each $Z_i = (A_i,B_i)$. If $N=1$, $\texttt{Merge}$ outputs $Z_1$. Otherwise:
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[(1)]
|
||||
\item Each member of the coalition selects constants $\mu_i, \gamma_i$ for the multisig address.
|
||||
\item Each member derives a partial secret keypair $(a^*_i, b^*_i)$ where $a^*_i = H_s(a_i, \mu_i)$ and $b^*_i = H_s(b_i, \gamma_i)$ and computes their associated public points $A^*_i=a^*_i G$, $B^*_i = b^*_i G$.
|
||||
%\item Each member uses $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}}$ to send $(A^*_i, B^*_i)$ to the coalition.
|
||||
\item If $t=N$, then the coalition uses $\Pi$ to collaboratively compute the shared secret view key $a^* = \sum_i a^*_i$\footnote{Note that although secret information is about $a_i$ not being directly shared with the coalition, the result of the computation is, in fact, a secret key, $a^*$.}, uses $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}}$ to collaboratively compute the shared public spend key $B^* = \sum_{i=1}^{N} B^*_i$. If $t=N-1$, then %, and then uses $\Pi$ to collaboratively compute the key image $J = \sum_{i=1}^{N} b^*_i H_p(B^*)$.:
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[(a)]
|
||||
\item For each $i,j$, a partial shared secret view key $\alpha_{i,j} := H_s(a^*_iA^*_i)$ and a partial shared secret spend key $\beta_{i,j} := H_s(b^*_iB^*_i)$ is computed by either participant $i$ or $j$.
|
||||
\item Set $N^* := \frac{N(N+1)}{2}$, $S^* := \left\{((\alpha_{i,j},\beta_{i,j}), (\alpha_{i,j}G, \beta_{i,j}G))\right\}_{1 \leq i < j \leq N}$, and run $\texttt{Merge}(N^*, S^*)$.
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
\item Every coalition member now knows the shared secret view key $a^*$ and the shared public spend key $B^*$.
|
||||
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
|
||||
\texttt{TxnKeyGen} takes as input a destination user public key $(A,B)$, selects a random scalar $r$, computes $R=rG$ and $P = H_s(rA)G + B$, and outputs $(R,P)$.
|
||||
|
||||
\texttt{ImageGen} takes as input a set of private user keys $y = \left\{(a_1, b_1), \ldots, (a_N, b_N)\right\}$ and a public transaction key $(R,P)$. For each $i=1,\ldots,N$, the $i^{th}$ member of $y$ computes partial key image $J_i = (H_s(a_i R)+ b_i)H_p(R,P)$. The participating members use $\Pi_\texttt{auth}$ to compute $J = \sum_i J_i$.
|
||||
|
||||
\texttt{Sign} takes as input a message $M$, a destination public user key $(A_{\texttt{dest}}, B_{\texttt{dest}})$, a set of public transaction keys $\left\{(R_1, P_1), \ldots, (R_L, P_L)\right\}$, a secret index $1 \leq k \leq L$, and a set of $t$ private keys $y=\left\{(a^*_i, b^*_i)\right\}_{i=1}^{t}$.
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[(1)]
|
||||
\item The points $(R^*, P^*) \leftarrow \texttt{TxnKeyGen}(1^\lambda, (A_{\texttt{dest}}, B_{\texttt{dest}}))$ are computed.
|
||||
\item The owners of $y=\left\{(a^*_i, b^*_i)\right\}$ (the \textit{signatories}) run $J \leftarrow \texttt{ImageGen}(1^\lambda, (R_k, P_k), y)$
|
||||
\item A set $\left\{s_{k+1}, s_{k+2}, \ldots, s_{k-1}\right\}$ of i.i.d.\ observations of uniform random variables are generated by the coalition and shared among the coalition using $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}}$.\footnote{We recommend that a coordinating user randomly selects these using a cryptographic random number generator; only the user coordinating the signature needs these values.}
|
||||
\item For each $j$, the $j^{th}$ signatory selects a random scalar $u_{j}$, computes $H_i:=H_{p}(B_i)$ for each index $1 \leq i \leq L$, and computes the points $u_jG$ and $u_jH_{k}$. The coalition uses $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}}$ to collaboratively compute $u_{k}G := \sum_j u_j G$ and $u_k H_k:= \sum_j u_j H_{k}$.
|
||||
|
||||
\item Some threshold member computes
|
||||
\begin{align*}
|
||||
c_{k+1} =& H_{p}(m, u_{k} G, u_{k} H_{k})\text{ and }\\
|
||||
c_{i+1} =& H_{p}(m, s_i G + c_i B_i, s_i H_{i} + c_i J)\text{ for }i=k+1, k+2, \ldots, k-1.
|
||||
\end{align*}
|
||||
\item The threshold member from the previous step uses $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}}$ to send $c_{k}$ to all other signers with authentication. These signers may check that their received $c_k$ matches their expected computations.
|
||||
\item If $t=N$, each signatory computes their personal $s_{k,j} := u_j - c_{k} b_j^*$. If $t=N-1$, each signatory computes $s_{k,j} = u_j - c_{k} \sum_{i=1}^{L}z_{i,j}$. The coalition uses $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}}$ to collaboratively compute $s_k = \sum_j s_{k,j}$ and construct the signature $\sigma = (c_1, s_1, s_2, \ldots, s_L)$.
|
||||
\item Any signatory may now publish the signature-tag pair $(\sigma, J)$ where $\sigma=(c_1, s_1, \ldots, s_N)$ together with the public transaction key $(R^*, P^*)$.
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{disc} The resulting signature takes the same form as LSAG signatures as in \cite{liu2004linkable}. Modifying the above to appropriately to take into account key vectors provides the generalization to MLSAG signatures. Thus the verification algorithm for these signatures is identical to the verification algorithm for usual MLSAG signatures and we omit its description. Similarly, $\texttt{Link}$ merely outputs a bit signifying whether two key images are identical, so we don't describe it further either.
|
||||
|
||||
\end{disc}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{disc}
|
||||
Each $u_j$ is kept secret from the other users and is generated randomly when the signature process begins. Certainly if $u_j$ is revealed to another signatory, since the values of $s_j$ and $c_i$ are communicated in with authentication but not encryption, revealing the value $u_j - c_{i^{\prime}} x_j$ can lead an observer to deduce $x_j$. Encryption does not solve the problem if threshold members are untrustworthy.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Similarly, if some value of $u_j$ is re-used twice with the same private key, an observer can deduce the private key. Indeed, assuming we are using a hash function resistant to second pre-image attacks, the commitments from two signature processes $c_{i^{\prime}}, c_{i^{\prime}}^*$ are unequal except with negligible probability even if the other threshold members are colluding. Hence since $s_{i^{\prime},j} = u_j - c_{i^{\prime}} x_{j}$ and $s_{i^{\prime},j}^* = u_j - c_{i^{\prime}}^* x_{j}$, an observer may solve for the private key $x_j$. Don't re-use values of $u_j$, keep them secret, generate them randomly.
|
||||
|
||||
\end{disc}
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{disc} Note that users in $(N-1)$-of-$N$ processes are prompted to select constants $\mu, \gamma$ multiple times for multiple sets of keys. If our hash function $H_s(-)$ is suitably secure, the lazy user can re-use the same constants $\mu$ and $\gamma$ without concern; nevertheless, it is recommended that users do not re-use constants in $\texttt{Merge}$.
|
||||
\end{disc}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Security}
|
||||
|
||||
%Note that for our restricted RTM described in Section \ref{sec:implement} only accepts thresholds $t$ such that $2 \leq N-1 \leq t \leq N$ and only merges keys of depth zero.
|
||||
|
||||
Recall the critical fact proven in \cite{scozzafava1993uniform} that the sum of a uniform random variable with any indepenent random variable in $\mathbb{Z}/m\mathbb{Z}$ results in a uniform random variable (and conversely when $m$ is prime). Hence, no PPT algorithm will be able to distinguish between a uniform random variable $U$ and a sum of uniform random variables, $\sum_i U_i$.
|
||||
|
||||
Assume $H_s$, $H_p$ in the OT-LRTM implementation from Section \ref{sec:implement} are cryptographic hash functions under the random oracle model whose outputs are statistically indistinguishable from a uniform distribution except with non-negligible probability, and whose outputs are independent of one another. Assume $\texttt{UserKeyGen}$ produces keys from a distribution that is statistically indistinguishable from a uniform distribution.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{theorem}
|
||||
The restricted OT-LRTM implementation from Section \ref{sec:implement} is CIK.
|
||||
\end{theorem}
|
||||
\begin{proof}
|
||||
Either the key pair $X_b = (A,B)$ received by $\mathcal{A}$ in step (iii) of Definition \ref{threshIndist} is $N$-of-$N$ for some $N \geq 2$, $(N-1)$-of-$N$ for some $N \geq 3$, or a mere $1$-of-$1$ user key. Of course, $(N-1)$-of-$N$ key pairs are $N^*$-of-$N^*$ key pairs. Thus, we really only need to deal with two cases: an $N$-of-$N$ key pair with $N > 1$ or a $1$-of-$1$ key pair.
|
||||
|
||||
If $(A,B)$ is an $N$-of-$N$ key pair, then $A^* = \sum_{i} H_s(a_i, \mu_i) G$ and $B^* = \sum_i H_s(b_i, \gamma_i) G$. Since $H_s$ is a random oracle, any one of its outputs is uniformly random, and so any sum of its outputs is uniformly random \cite{scozzafava1993uniform}, so no PPT adversary may determine the number of signatories. On the other hand, if $(A,B)$ is a $1$-of-$1$ key pair, then $A$ and $B$ are each independent uniform random variables from $\texttt{UserKeyGen}$, so no PPT algorithm can determine whether $A$ or $B$ is a sum or not.
|
||||
|
||||
\end{proof}
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{theorem} The OT-LRTM implementation from Section \ref{sec:implement} is LSA-AGK.
|
||||
\end{theorem}
|
||||
\begin{proof}
|
||||
$\mathcal{A}$ selects transaction public keys as ring members $(R_0, P_0) = (r_0 G, H_s(r_0 A_0)G + B_0)$ and $(R_1, P_1) = (r_1 G, H_s(r_1 A_1)G + B_1)$, a message $M$, a destination key pair $(A_{\texttt{dest}}, B_{\texttt{dest}})$ and receives a signature-tag pair $(\sigma, J_b)$. $\mathcal{A}$ can compute $H_p(R_b, P_b)$ for each $b \in \left\{0,1\right\}$, but without knowing the secrets $a_b, b_b$, computing $J_b = (H_s(a_b R_b) + b_b)H_p(R_b, P_b)$ for either $b$ is infeasible for PPT $\mathcal{A}$. Moreover, $\sigma$ has the same security properties as in \cite{liu2004linkable}.\footnote{WORK ON THIS}
|
||||
\end{proof}
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{theorem} The OT-LRTM implementation from Section \ref{sec:implement} is st-EUF.
|
||||
\end{theorem}
|
||||
\begin{proof}
|
||||
Assume $\mathcal{A}$ is a PPT adversary that can succeed at the game in Definition \ref{} with non-negligible advantage. The adversary has sub-threshold access to the ring, $\mathcal{A}$ cannot execute $\texttt{Sign}$ fairly and must attempt a forgery by generating additional random numbers. In this case, the adversary is merely attempting to forge a usual LSAG signature, and the security proof reduces to the one presented by \cite{liu2004linkable}.
|
||||
|
||||
%We use the rewind-on-success approach presented in \cite{liu2004linkable}. Assume a reduction master $\mathcal{M}$ simulates adversary $\mathcal{A}$ who can succeed at the game presented in Definition \ref{steuf} with non-negligible probability, bounded below by $1/Q_1(\lambda)$ for some polynomial $Q_1(-)$. Let $q_{H}$ be the number of queries $\mathcal{A}$ makes to the $H_s(-)$ or $H_p(-)$, $q_C$ be the number of queries $\mathcal{A}$ makes to the corruption oracle, let $q_S$ be the number of queries $\mathcal{A}$ makes to the signing oracle.
|
||||
|
||||
%Then $\mathcal{A}$ produces a signature $\sigma$, a message $M$, and a set $R \subseteq S$ such that $\texttt{VER}(M,R,\sigma) = 1$. Denote the number of public keys $\left|R\right|$.
|
||||
|
||||
%We first show that, except with negligible probability, $\mathcal{A}$ must have included all verification queries to $H_p$ of the form
|
||||
%\[c_{i+1} = H_p(m, s_i G + c_i B_i, s_i H_i + c_i J)\]
|
||||
%among their $q_H$ queries. To pass this verification, $\left|R\right|$ solutions to these equations must be presented. Let $E$ be the event that all $\left|R\right|$ of these queries are included in the $q_H$ queries made by $\mathcal{A}$, and $\overline{E}$ the set complement. In the event $\overline{E}$, $\mathcal{M}$ needs to generate additional random numbers in order to verify the forgery; but $\mathcal{A}$ did not make oracle queries for these random numbers, so $\mathcal{A}$ could only guess the outcomes of those queries. Consequently, the probability that $c_1$ matches the required validation is at most $1/(q - q_H - n q_S)$. Since this is negligible, the probability of the intersection of $E$ with a forgery by $\mathcal{A}$ is non-negligible. Note that this result is independent of corruption oracle and signing oracle access, since the adversary cannot invert $H_p(-)$ except with negligible probability.
|
||||
|
||||
%Thus, in any transcript where $\mathcal{A}$ computes a successful forgery there exists an oracle query of the form $H_p(m, s_i G + c_i B_i, s_i H_i + c_i J)$.
|
||||
|
||||
%Moreover, $\mathcal{A}$ has not directly corrupted any keys in $R$, $\mathcal{A}$ has at most subthreshold corruption oracle access to any threshold keys in $R$, and $\mathcal{A}$ has not send $(k,M,R)$ in a query to $\mathcal{SO}$.
|
||||
\end{proof}
|
||||
|
||||
%If we assume all threshold members are honest, the scheme reduces to the usual LSAG signature as in \cite{liu2004linkable}. However, this is an undesirable assumption for applications in cryptocurrency. Definition \ref{defn:unf} is inadequate in the threshold setting because, if some $B_i$ is a $t_i$-of-$n_i$ shared public key in the ring, the adversary may query the oracle $\mathcal{SO}$ to sign messages on behalf of some of the $n_i$ members sharing the public key $B_i$ without violating the conditions of Definition \ref{defn:unf}. Do to this, we consider Definition \ref{defn:unf2} to describe adaptive chosen message attacks where insiders.
|
||||
|
||||
%Since we may regard any $(n-1)$-of-$n$ instantiation of the above scheme as an $n^*$-of-$n^*$ instantiation, it is sufficient to prove that any $n$-of-$n$ instantiation is secure. The $1$-of-$1$ instantiation is merely the LSAG signature from \cite{liu2004linkable}; in this setting, Definitions \ref{defn:unf} and \ref{defn:unf2} coincide, so we only must concern ourselves with $n$-of-$n$ instantiations with $n \geq 2$.
|
||||
|
||||
%The strength of the security proof from \cite{liu2004linkable} rests on novel rewind-on-success simulations. Rewind simulations were first presented as the forking lemma in \cite{pointcheval1996security} and the heavy row lemma in \cite{ohta1998concrete}; rewind-on-success simulations are first presented in \cite{liu2004linkable}. With a master PPT $\mathcal{M}$ invoking a PPT adversary $\mathcal{A}$ to obtain a transcript $\mathcal{T}$ in an attack game on some scheme $\Pi$ may, the rewind-on-success simulation will, upon finding a success in $\mathcal{T}$, rewind $\mathcal{T}$ to some point, header $h$ and ``begin again'' to seek an additional success. Resimulating $\mathcal{A}$ with new random data, $\mathcal{M}$ generates a new transcript $\mathcal{T}^*$ where $\mathcal{T}$ and $\mathcal{T}^*$ are identical up to (and including) header $h$. It is established in \protect{\cite[Lem E.1]{liu2004linkable}} that the probabilities of success of $\mathcal{T}$ and $\mathcal{T}^*$ are identical (although this says nothing of their independence). Thus an attacker who can find one success with non-negligible probability can find any finite number they desire using rewind-on-success with non-negligible probability.
|
||||
|
||||
%Thus, if the adversary can successfully compute one forged signature on a message with non-negligible probability, say $\sigma = (c_1, s_1, \ldots, s_N, J)$, then that adversary can rewind and compute a second forged signature with the same key image but different random values $s_i^*$, say $\sigma^* = (c_1^*, s_1^*, \ldots, s_N^*, J)$, also with non-negligible probability. In checking that these forgeries satisfy verification, the adversary must compute the commitments in the LSAG signature, and hence must query some hash function $H$ at least once per commitment. So the adversary must make as many queries to $H$ as there are ring members, $L$, each of the form $H(J,m, sG + cB, sH(B) + cJ)$, where $B$ is a public key in the ring and $J$ is the key image associated to the signature. In computing the first forgery, the adversary must compute some first commitment $H(m,J, uG, vG^{\prime}) = H(m,J, sG + cB, sH(B) + cJ)$, where $u$, $v$, and the base point $G^{\prime}$ are each unknown before rewinding. After rewinding and computing a second forgery, the adversary has the system of equations
|
||||
%\begin{align*}
|
||||
%uG =& sG + cB\\
|
||||
%uG =& s^*G + c^*B\\
|
||||
%vG^{\prime} =& sH(B) + cJ\\
|
||||
%vG^{\prime} =& s^*H(B) + c^*J\\
|
||||
%\end{align*}
|
||||
%The adversary can then compute the secret key $b = \frac{s-s^*}{c^*-c}$, solving the discrete log problem $B = bG$.
|
||||
|
||||
%This proof extends directly to MLSAG signatures; this was claimed in \cite{noether2016ring} but the proof therein contained a mistake, which we correct here:
|
||||
%\todo{Shen's security theorem and corrected proof}
|
||||
%\begin{thm}
|
||||
%*
|
||||
%\end{thm}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
%The signatories must make several joint decisions in the process described under Section \ref{sec:implement}. We are vague in their description because the implementation of these steps can be done in many ways.
|
||||
|
||||
%For example, in Step 3, the signatories decide upon a ring and a secret index to store their public keys. This may be done by merely having some member do it randomly (introducing a sort of Byzantine General problem), or using some deterministic (but seemingly random) method chosen ahead of time in meatspace based on the input message. The secret index should appear to be uniformly random, regardless of method employed. Note that one of the signatories can publicly communicate a sort of encryption of the secret index without harm by merely publishing the ring of public keys $Q$; other signatories know their own public keys, so they can inspect the ring and determine the secret index without any further information from the first signatory and without observers being able to discern which index is the threshold key.
|
||||
|
||||
%Also in Step 3, the signatories decide on the values of $s_i$ randomly. One method is for each signatory to compute their own $s_{i,j}$ and computing the shared sums $s_i = \sum_j s_{i,j}$. This requires a lot of interaction; another method is to simply let one threshold member do it and communicate the values to the group with authentication. Note that the values $s_i$ are eventually made public in the signature and there is no harm in sharing these values without encryption. Similarly, in step 8, we compute the sum $\sum_j s_{i^{\prime},j}$; since each user keeps their $u_j$ secret, they can reveal their $u_j - c_{i^{\prime}} b_j^*$ or $u_j - c_{i^{\prime}} \sum_{i=1}^{L} z_{i,j}$ without risking their private keys, so there is no harm in sharing these values without encryption.
|
||||
|
||||
%To communicate a message with authentication, we use the HMAC scheme: for the $j^{th}$ threshold member to communicate a message $M$ to the $i^{th}$ threshold member, a shared secret $t_{i,j}$ is computed and $(M, \texttt{HMAC}(t_{i,j}, M))$ is sent. For a CCA-secure encrypt-and-authenticate scheme \cite{katzAndLindell}, two users generate two shared secrets $t_{i,j}$, $t^*_{i,j}$. The sending user computes the ciphertext $C = \texttt{Enc}(t_{i,j}, M)$ and the authentication codes $\tau = \texttt{HMAC}(t^*_{i,j}, C)$ and sends $(C,\tau)$ to the receiver. If a receiver sees some $(C,\tau)$, they can check if $\tau$ is a valid HMAC on $C$ for any of their shared secrets. If so, they can decrypt $C$ with the other shared secret.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
%\begin{comment}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
%Additional properties are often required in application, such as \textit{linkability}: an adversary can feasibly identify whether two signatures have been fashioned by some common private keys. In the case of usual ring signatures, this is an obvious question: if the true signer of two signatures is the same, output $1$, otherwise $0$. Linkability schemes can be de-anonymizing if the process reveals more than just a bit, like the associated user public key (or worse, the user secret key). Unfortunately, in the case of $t$-of-$n$ threshold signatures, the property of linkability comes in several flavors.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
%A brief notational consideration: for some signature $\sigma$ generated by following the protocol honestly, denote $P^*_\sigma$ as the ring of public signing keys associated with $\sigma$, denote $(sk^*_\sigma, pk^*_\sigma)$ as the signing keypair of the signatory for $\sigma$. For such a signature, there must have existed a $t$-of-$n$ configuration of users (recall this is a collection of user secret keys), which comes equipped with a set of user public keys $P_\sigma$, and a subset of the associated user secret keys $S_\sigma$. Denote the set of public keys associated with the user secret keys in $S_\sigma$ as $P(S_\sigma)$.
|
||||
|
||||
%A t-of-n threshold ring signature scheme can be made into a linkable $t$-of-$n$ threshold ring signature if it comes equipped with an PPT algorithm \texttt{Lnk} that outputs a bit if two input signatures are linked. Implementation of \texttt{Lnk} depends critically on the application. If linkability is defined such that we only detect when \textit{exact same} $t$-of-$n$ configuration of users signed two signatures, then it is possible that a group of $n=t+1$ users conspire to fashion $t+1$ different $t$-of-$n$ threshold ring signatures, each with a unique $t$-of-$n$ configuration. Hence, these signers are able to fashion as many different $t$-of-$n$ signatures as they have conspirators before linkability reveals their behavior. On the other hand, by requiring all user keys from \texttt{GenUserKey} be one-time keypairs generated in a Diffie-Hellman exchange, this forces all of our signatures to be one-time signatures and the problem is resolved.
|
||||
|
||||
%On the other end of the spectrum, presume linkability is defined such that two signatures are linked if \textit{at least one} user private key is used in common between two signatures. Then each private key can participate in at most one signing, regardless of the size of coalition of users $n$ or threshold $t$, before use of their private key will lead to linkage. This may be undesirable for many applications, but the appeal for use in e-cash schemes is obvious.
|
||||
|
||||
%We use the following terminology. If an adversary can feasibly compute some nontrivial function of the sets $P(S_{\sigma_1})$ and $P(S_{\sigma_2})$, we say the scheme is \textit{leaky}. If an attacker can feasibly determine whether $P(S_{\sigma_1}) = P(S_{\sigma_2})$, then we say that the scheme is \textit{linkable}. If an attacker can feasibly determine whether $P(S_{\sigma_1}) \cap P(S_{\sigma_2}) = \emptyset$, then we say that the scheme is \textit{individually linkable}. Certainly every linkable scheme and every individually linkable scheme is leaky. If an adversary can feasibly compute some nontrivial function of the sets $S_{\sigma_1}$ and $S_{\sigma_2}$, we say the scheme is \textit{very leaky}. Note that every very leaky scheme is leaky. We attain a hierarchy induced by both linkability and leakage.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
%Recall that a usual ring signature is a $1$-of-$1$ threshold ring signature. Thus, a linkable ring signature is a linkable $1$-of-$1$ threshold ring signature. In particular, given two signatures, an adversary can feasibly determine whether the public key of the signer of both signatures is the same. It's clear that in this scenario, the notion of linkability and the notion of individual linkability coincide.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
%For our purposes, we use a \texttt{Lnk} algorithm that takes as input a $t_1$-of-$n_1$ signature $\sigma_1$ on message $M_1$ with possible signing public keys $P^*_1$, a $t_2$-of-$n_2$ signature $\sigma_2$ on message $M_2$ with possible signing public keys $P^*_2$. The algorithm outputs a bit if any secret key used to generate $\sigma_1$ was also used to generate $\sigma_2$.
|
||||
|
||||
%In a linkable $t$-of-$n$ threshold ring signature with, say $L$ ring members, each ring member consists of some $t$-of-$n$ threshold configuration of user keys. In this way, each signature implicates $L$ threshold configurations, each with $t$ users, so each signature implicates $tL$ users. If any particular $t$-of-$n$ threshold configuration
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Further Analysis}
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Efficiency and comparisons}
|
||||
|
||||
The signatures resulting from the OT-LRTM scheme are indistinguishable from MLSAG signatures, so space complexity and verification time complexity of the OT-LRTM scheme is identical to that of MLSAGs. Due to the use of $\Pi$ and several (possibly recursive) rounds of communication between coalition participants, efficiency of signatures is greatly reduced.
|
||||
|
||||
For a coalition consisting of $1$-of-$1$ keys, $\texttt{Merge}$ takes one round of communication inside the coalition with $\Pi$, $\texttt{ImageGen}$ takes one round of communication inside the coalition with $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}}$, $\texttt{Sign}$ takes three distinct rounds of communication with $\Pi_{\texttt{auth}}$ and calls $\texttt{TxnKeyGen}$ and $\texttt{ImageGen}$ each once. In total, this amounts to five rounds of communication inside the coalition per signature. For a coalition containing shared user keys for sub-coalitions, the rounds of communication in $\texttt{Sign}$ must also take place inside each sub-coalition (and sub-sub-coalition, and so on).
|
||||
|
||||
In total, if we define the \textit{depth} of $1$-of-$1$ public user key as depth $0$, and the \textit{depth} of any $t$-of-$N$ public user key $X$ with coalition $C$ as $\max\left\{\texttt{depth}(X) \mid X \in C\right\}+1$. Then for a signature with a coalition of depth $D$ where each coalition has at most $N$ members, we require at most $2 + 3\cdot D^N$ rounds of communication to fashion a signature.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Elaborations}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
%A stronger version of Definition \ref{threshIndist} is available by granting the adversary access to a signing oracle, providing coalition indistinguishable keys and signatures against chosen message attacks (CIKS-CMA), which guarantees that not only are \textit{keys} coalition-indistinguishable, but also signatures, even if the adversary can obtain arbitrary signatures.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
We speculate that modifications to the CryptoNote-styled constructions of key images may allow for stronger notions of signer ambiguity in the future without sacrificing robustness against double-spend attacks. For example, by taking key images as homomorphic commitments, two commitments may be linked if their difference is a commitment to zero without revealing their masks. This is beyond the scope of this document.
|
||||
|
||||
Can the notion of CIK be expanded to CIKS so as to include signatures and chosen messages? With an LRTM, this expansion is nontrivial but straightforward. With an OT-LRTM, this becomes a delicate generalization due to the one-time transaction keys.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\emph{Special Thanks}: We would like to issue a special thanks to the members of the Monero community who used the GetMonero.org Forum Funding System to support the Monero Research Lab. Readers may also regard this as a statement of conflict of interest, since our funding is denominated in Monero and provided directly by members of the Monero community by the Forum Funding System.
|
||||
|
||||
\medskip{}
|
||||
|
||||
\bibliographystyle{plain}
|
||||
\bibliography{biblio.bib}
|
||||
|
||||
\end{document}
|
||||
BIN
publications/roadmaps/MRL-R001/moneroLogo.png
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publications/roadmaps/MRL-R001/moneroLogo.png
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Binary file not shown.
|
After 
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27
publications/roadmaps/MRL-R002/MRL-R002.bib
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27
publications/roadmaps/MRL-R002/MRL-R002.bib
Normal file
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
|
|||
@article{noether2016ring,
|
||||
title={Ring Confidential Transactions},
|
||||
author={Noether, Shen and Mackenzie, Adam and others},
|
||||
journal={Ledger},
|
||||
volume={1},
|
||||
pages={1--18},
|
||||
year={2016}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Inbook{Bootle2015,
|
||||
author="Bootle, Jonathan
|
||||
and Cerulli, Andrea
|
||||
and Chaidos, Pyrros
|
||||
and Ghadafi, Essam
|
||||
and Groth, Jens
|
||||
and Petit, Christophe",
|
||||
editor="Pernul, G{\"u}nther
|
||||
and Y A Ryan, Peter
|
||||
and Weippl, Edgar",
|
||||
title="Short Accountable Ring Signatures Based on DDH",
|
||||
bookTitle="Computer Security -- ESORICS 2015: 20th European Symposium on Research in Computer Security, Vienna, Austria, September 21-25, 2015, Proceedings, Part I",
|
||||
year="2015",
|
||||
publisher="Springer International Publishing",
|
||||
address="Cham",
|
||||
pages="243--265"
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
408
publications/roadmaps/MRL-R002/MRL-R002.tex
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408
publications/roadmaps/MRL-R002/MRL-R002.tex
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|
|
@ -0,0 +1,408 @@
|
|||
\documentclass[12pt,english]{mrl}
|
||||
\usepackage{graphicx}
|
||||
\usepackage{listings}
|
||||
\usepackage{cite}
|
||||
\usepackage{amsthm}
|
||||
|
||||
\usepackage[toc,page]{appendix}
|
||||
|
||||
\renewcommand{\familydefault}{\rmdefault}
|
||||
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
|
||||
\usepackage[latin9]{inputenc}
|
||||
\usepackage{color}
|
||||
\usepackage{babel}
|
||||
\usepackage{verbatim}
|
||||
\usepackage{float}
|
||||
\usepackage{url}
|
||||
\usepackage{amsthm}
|
||||
\usepackage{amsmath}
|
||||
\usepackage{amssymb}
|
||||
\usepackage[unicode=true,pdfusetitle, bookmarks=true,bookmarksnumbered=false,bookmarksopen=false, breaklinks=false,pdfborder={0 0 1},backref=false,colorlinks=true]{hyperref}
|
||||
\usepackage{breakurl}
|
||||
\usepackage{todonotes}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\usepackage{amsmath}
|
||||
\usepackage{amsfonts}
|
||||
\usepackage{amssymb,enumerate}
|
||||
\usepackage{amsthm}
|
||||
\usepackage{cite}
|
||||
\usepackage{comment}
|
||||
\usepackage[all]{xy}
|
||||
%\usepackage[notref,notcite]{showkeys}
|
||||
\usepackage{hyperref}
|
||||
\usepackage{todonotes}
|
||||
|
||||
% THEOREM ENVIRONMENTS
|
||||
\newtheorem*{example}{Example}
|
||||
\theoremstyle{definition}
|
||||
\newtheorem{lem}{Lemma}[section]
|
||||
\newtheorem{cor}[lem]{Corollary}
|
||||
\newtheorem{prop}[lem]{Proposition}
|
||||
\newtheorem{thm}[lem]{Theorem}
|
||||
\newtheorem{soln}[]{Solution}
|
||||
\newtheorem{conj}[lem]{Conjecture}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Defn}[lem]{Definition}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Ex}[lem]{Example}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Question}[lem]{Question}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Property}[lem]{Property}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Properties}[lem]{Properties}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Discussion}[lem]{Remark}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Construction}[lem]{Construction}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Notation}[lem]{Notation}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Fact}[lem]{Fact}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Notationdefinition}[lem]{Definition/Notation}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Remarkdefinition}[lem]{Remark/Definition}
|
||||
\newtheorem{rem}[lem]{Remark}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Subprops}{}[lem]
|
||||
\newtheorem{Para}[lem]{}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Exer}[lem]{Exercise}
|
||||
\newtheorem{Exerc}{Exercise}
|
||||
|
||||
\newenvironment{defn}{\begin{Defn}\rm}{\end{Defn}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{ex}{\begin{Ex}\rm}{\end{Ex}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{question}{\begin{Question}\rm}{\end{Question}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{property}{\begin{Property}\rm}{\end{Property}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{properties}{\begin{Properties}\rm}{\end{Properties}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{notation}{\begin{Notation}\rm}{\end{Notation}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{fact}{\begin{Fact}\rm}{\end{Fact}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{notationdefinition}{\begin{Notationdefinition}\rm}{\end{Notationdefinition}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{remarkdefinition}{\begin{Remarkdefinition}\rm}{\end{Remarkdefinition}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{subprops}{\begin{Subprops}\rm}{\end{Subprops}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{para}{\begin{Para}\rm}{\end{Para}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{disc}{\begin{Discussion}\rm}{\end{Discussion}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{construction}{\begin{Construction}\rm}{\end{Construction}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{exer}{\begin{Exer}\rm}{\end{Exer}}
|
||||
\newenvironment{exerc}{\begin{Exerc}\rm}{\end{Exerc}}
|
||||
|
||||
\newtheorem{intthm}{Theorem}
|
||||
\renewcommand{\theintthm}{\Alph{intthm}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% LyX specific LaTeX commands.
|
||||
\floatstyle{ruled}
|
||||
\newfloat{algorithm}{tbp}{loa}
|
||||
\providecommand{\algorithmname}{Algorithm}
|
||||
\floatname{algorithm}{\protect\algorithmname}
|
||||
|
||||
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Textclass specific LaTeX commands.
|
||||
\numberwithin{equation}{section}
|
||||
\numberwithin{figure}{section}
|
||||
|
||||
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% User specified LaTeX commands.
|
||||
\usepackage{algpseudocode}
|
||||
|
||||
\usepackage{subcaption}
|
||||
|
||||
\numberwithin{equation}{section}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\makeatletter
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\makeatletter
|
||||
|
||||
\newcommand{\h}{\mathcal{H}}
|
||||
|
||||
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% LyX specific LaTeX commands.
|
||||
\floatstyle{ruled}
|
||||
\newfloat{algorithm}{tbp}{loa}
|
||||
\providecommand{\algorithmname}{Algorithm}
|
||||
\floatname{algorithm}{\protect\algorithmname}
|
||||
|
||||
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Textclass specific LaTeX commands.
|
||||
\numberwithin{equation}{section}
|
||||
\numberwithin{figure}{section}
|
||||
|
||||
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% User specified LaTeX commands.
|
||||
\usepackage{algpseudocode}
|
||||
|
||||
\makeatother
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{document}
|
||||
\begin{frontmatter}
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{fmbox}
|
||||
\hfill\setlength{\fboxrule}{0px}\setlength{\fboxsep}{5px}\fbox{\includegraphics[width=2in]{moneroLogo.png}}
|
||||
\dochead{Research Road-map \hfill MRL-R002}
|
||||
\title{Priorities for Monero Research Lab}
|
||||
\date{September 9, 2017}
|
||||
\author[
|
||||
addressref={mrl},
|
||||
email={bggoode@g.clemson.edu}
|
||||
]{\fnm{Brandon} \snm{Goodell}}
|
||||
\author[
|
||||
addressref={mrl},
|
||||
email={sarang.noether@protonmail.com}
|
||||
]{\fnm{Sarang} \snm{Noether}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\address[id=mrl]{
|
||||
\orgname{Monero Research Lab}
|
||||
}
|
||||
\end{fmbox}
|
||||
|
||||
\begin{abstractbox}
|
||||
\begin{abstract}
|
||||
We outline the various ideas currently under investigation by the Monero Research Lab, provide context for each task, and present some informative sources regarding each task. \end{abstract}
|
||||
\end{abstractbox}
|
||||
\end{frontmatter}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
This bulletin serves as an update to the Monero community about the recent work, current priorities, and intended future work of the Monero Research Lab (MRL) team. A particular focus of this bulletin is also providing general history and information for the community about the particular types of research problems that are the foci of the Lab, especially since many projects are related. For each topic, we indicate a non-binding but reasonable time line for completion. At the end, we reserve discussion for items that were on the first road map that require reconsideration.
|
||||
|
||||
\section{A few brief announcements...}
|
||||
|
||||
\textit{On a personnel note,} the Lab is pleased to announce that Sarang Noether joined the team as a full-time researcher under a Forum Funding System proposal. Many thanks to the generous supporters who funded his work for the next few months.
|
||||
|
||||
\textit{Coming soon!} Monero Research Labs is scheduling bi-monthly \textit{research meetings} to alternate with bi-monthly \textit{office hours} on freenode. At research meetings, contributors can describe their progress, challenges, and bring questions up about their projects. At office hours, any member of the Monero community can come on down and ask any questions they like. Right now we are considering every Monday at 17:00-18:00 UTC, pending feedback from the community, to alternate between research meetings and office hours. Official times and dates will be posted soon.
|
||||
|
||||
\textit{On another note,} Monero Research Lab would also like to thank contributor \texttt{knaccc} for volunteering his time for three straight weeks to get RTRS RingCT off the ground. Thanks to his efforts, we now have a Ring Confidential Transaction scheme with sub-linear space complexity in the number of signers! This is extremely great news, and \texttt{knaccc} deserves a pat on the back.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\vspace{0.1in}
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Signature sizes and confidential transactions} \label{secOne}
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Summary:}
|
||||
|
||||
We have completed an implementation of a sub-linearly-sized Ring Confidential Transaction scheme (RTRS Ring CT) with operational Java code and slightly-out-of-date pseudo-code at \url{https://github.com/monero-project/research-lab}. We are investigating the security models, the consequences of implementation, and the possibility of extending the scheme to a Schnorr-like threshold multisignature scheme. In the process of verifying the security of the new Ring CT scheme, we are correcting old proofs for the current MLSAG Ring CT scheme.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Timing and Urgency:}
|
||||
|
||||
This project is of moderate urgency. We anticipate a significantly greater understanding of the ramifications of implementing RTRS Ring CT by the end of October 2017 and we anticipate our recommendations for or against implementation in the Spring 2018 hard fork before the end of November 2017. If a Schnorr-like generalization toward threshold multisignatures is possible, we anticipate an MRL Research Bulletin on the matter before the Spring 2018 hard fork.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{History and Details:}
|
||||
|
||||
The size of signatures has been an ongoing subject of intense discussion, growing concern, and research for the MRL team. Blockchain bloat is directly affected by the size of ring signatures, and research toward traceability analyses for CryptoNote has demonstrated that larger ring sizes improve resistance to traceability. However, it is critical that increased ring sizes not be tied to excessive blockchain bloat. Additionally, any signature scheme that permits large rings should also ensure efficient verification times. Hence there are two (often competing) factors: signature size and verification time.
|
||||
|
||||
The current Monero protocol uses multi-layered linkable spontaneous anonymous group signatures (MLSAGs), described in \cite{noether2016ring}, to implement a ring signature version of Confidential Transactions first proposed by Greg Maxwell. We call this scheme the MLSAG Ring CT scheme. In the MLSAG Ring CT scheme, transaction amounts (with multiple inputs and outputs) are replaced by commitments to those amounts. This approach masks both the spender and the amounts, while still allowing any party to verify that the transaction balances without double spending. The set-up increases privacy of Monero (compared to the reference CryptoNote protocol which did not mask transaction amounts), but comes equipped with drawbacks. First, the presented security proofs contains flaws, and second, the size of the signatures increases linearly with the size of the ring: doubling ring sizes leads to doubling the weight of the blockchain. We are informally confident that the security definitions are satisfied despite the incorrect proofs and are working to correct the old proofs. Additionally, we are constantly seeking more efficient schemes.
|
||||
|
||||
A paper was shared with MRL by Tim Ruffing, Sri Aravinda Thyagarajan, Viktoria Ronge, and Dominique Schr{\"o}der, (Ruffing et.\ al., personal communication, August 2017) proposing a novel construction of Ring CT together with new security definitions. The proposal modifies previous work on ring signatures by Jonathan Bootle, Andrea Cerulli, Pyrros Chaidos, Essam Ghadafi, Jens Groth, and Christophe Petit \cite{bootle2015short}. We are formally calling this scheme the RTRS Ring CT.
|
||||
|
||||
Space complexity for RTRS Ring CT is logarithmic in the size of the ring, so the limiting factor in large ring sizes has shifted to verification time, which is linear in the ring size. One of the authors, Tim Ruffing, also posted a proof that the verification time for any secure ring signature scheme is linear in the ring size. The RTRS Ring CT scheme uses keys that are twice as large as the MLSAG scheme, resulting in (asymptotically) twice the verification time as the MLSAG scheme. In this sense, the MLSAG Ring CT protocol is as fast as we can reasonably expect verification to proceed, in terms of number of operations. The only remaining possible optimization therefore would involve changing elliptic curves, using different implementations of elliptic curve arithmetic, using specialized hardware specifically for signature verification, or implementing amortization by re-using rings. The RTRS scheme doubles verification time complexity in exchange for logarithmic space complexity.
|
||||
|
||||
The development of the prototype in Java (which went under the super-top-secret tongue-in-cheek title RuffCT) was done by \texttt{knaccc} with the assistance of \texttt{surae} and \texttt{sarang}. Each of these contributors were instrumental. The Lab has verified that RuffCT does, in fact, produce and verify signatures as claimed and we have produced a working implementation in Java (available at \url{https://github.com/monero-project/research-lab}).
|
||||
|
||||
We have moved onto investigating the presented security models and proofs, and investigating the ramifications of implementing RTRS Ring CT into Monero: how large can we make our rings and still keep our transaction verification time on the order of a few seconds? Associated ongoing projects include: (i) the proper inclusion of fees in an RTRS Ring CT in a secure manner, (ii) the process of converting to the new addressing system, (iii) threshold multisignature versions of the RTRS Ring CT, and (iv) various methods to improve average verification time (constrained by the theoretical minima previously described). This topic is considered to be of moderate priority. We expect a more complete understanding of the differences between MLSAG and RTRS Ring CT by the end of October 2017.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Threshold multisignatures}
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Summary:}
|
||||
|
||||
We are in the midst of completing our analysis of the Schnorr-like threshold multisignature implementation of MLSAG Ring CT as described in \cite{noether2016ring} and our comparison to the code produced by contributor \texttt{luigi}. Demonstrating security requires appropriate (novel) security models and definitions. In the process of constructing security proofs (and overlapping with our work on RTRS Ring CT above), we are correcting old proofs for the current MLSAG Ring CT scheme as we go.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Timing and Urgency:}
|
||||
|
||||
This project is of high urgency, as the scheme is already implemented and would provide additional security features to users immediately. The novelty of our security schemes delayed our previous estimate as completing this by the end of August 2017. We anticipate an MRL Research Bulletin describing the scheme and presenting security proofs by the end of November 2017 at the latest.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{History and Details:}
|
||||
|
||||
In \cite{noether2016ring}, Shen Noether proposed a $t$-of-$N$ threshold multisignature approach for MLSAG ring signatures where the number of participants in the signature generation is not discernible from the signature. We are currently investigating security models for such signature schemes, in particular for $N$-of-$N$ and $(N-1)$-of-$N$ cases, for multi-factor authentication purposes. Good security models for ring signatures are tough to come by, and we believe that we must incorporate novel definitions in the analysis. In particular, we are currently looking into expanding the definitions presented in \cite{bender2006ring} to account for threshold multisignature schemes.
|
||||
|
||||
In particular, attacks involving a corruption of a sub-threshold number of keys by an attacker must be considered. The goal is to ensure that given an adversary with the ability to corrupt honest user key pairs as well as the ability to maliciously generate their own key pairs, even if they generate or corrupt up to $(t-1)$ keys by an attacker, the security of our $t$-of-$N$ threshold multisignature is not reduced. This is akin to the security guaranteed by a classical Shamir secret-sharing scheme \cite{shamir1979share}, where an attacker must control a ``critical mass'' of keys before gaining any secret information from honest participants.
|
||||
|
||||
In order to ensure correct security proofs of the threshold scheme, work is also underway to complete proofs of security for the original $N$-of-$N$ MLSAG multisignature scheme. Errors must be addressed for a proper extension to the threshold model. We consider this topic to be of high priority and intend that the scheme is demonstrated to be sufficiently secure for live implementation in wallet software before the end of November 2017.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Sub-addresses}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Summary:}
|
||||
|
||||
We are in the midst of completing our analysis of the sub-address scheme first described by contributors \texttt{knaccc} and \texttt{kenshi84}. This scheme allows for a single ``master'' key pair to generate a family of Monero addresses, all of which share a common view key. We are taking care to verify that the security of either the MLSAG Ring CT or the RTRS Ring CT schemes are not compromised using these schemes.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Timing and Urgency:}
|
||||
|
||||
This project is of high urgency, as the scheme is mostly implemented and would provide additional convenience features to users immediately. The Lab has begun a more complete review of the proposal. We expect an MRL Research Bulletin detailing the sub-address scheme by the end of November 2017, with inclusions of the necessary proofs to show that the scheme is at least as secure as previous implementations. The goal is to release both the sub-address and threshold multisignature papers at or around the same time.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{History and Details:}
|
||||
|
||||
A sub-address scheme addresses solves the problem of address reuse. In such a scheme, a user maintains a ``master'' key pair from which she generates new addresses as needed. Unlike an approach where the user simply generates independent key pairs, sub-addresses should not require that the user verify every incoming transaction with each of her view keys. Instead, the construction of sub-addresses should permit single transaction verification and hence not scale poorly. With such an approach, a user can publish as many addresses as she wishes and be assured that a third party cannot link the addresses.
|
||||
|
||||
A implementation proposal has been submitted (by researchers \texttt{kenshi84} and \texttt{knaccc}) that claims compatibility with existing key structure and multiple outputs, solving initial concerns about issuing change. The Lab has begun a more complete review of the proposal. Any Ring CT scheme using these sub-addresses should enjoy at least the same security properties as the address scheme in the CryptoNote standards.
|
||||
|
||||
The proof that the sub-addressing scheme as currently described does not degrade security is very close to trivial. Unfortunately, the triviality is not so simple that we may leave the proof to the reader, so we are presenting the formal security definitions and proof in our write-up. We expect a white paper detailing the sub-address scheme by the end of November 2017, with inclusions of the necessary proofs to show that the scheme is at least as secure as previous implementations.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Range proofs}
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Summary:}
|
||||
|
||||
Work on range proofs is going in two simultaneous directions: compact, fast-to-verify proofs, and utilizing the space complexity of range proofs for storing cipher texts.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Timing and Urgency:}
|
||||
|
||||
This project is of medium urgency; the increased utility of the Monero blockchain is balanced by other issues with greater urgency regarding security. We anticipate a review of different implementations of range proofs and a sketch of an encrypt-then-authenticate scheme utilizing range proofs by Spring 2018.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{History and Details:}
|
||||
|
||||
An essential component to confidential transactions is a range proof. A naive confidential transaction scheme might only ensure that transaction amounts balance, but this introduces the possibility of attacks using negative values or modular wrapping. A range proof offers assurances that each input is in a numerical range appropriate for the transaction, while not compromising the confidentiality of the amounts involved. Unfortunately, range proofs are larger than is preferable in both space and verification-time complexity. Rather than perceiving this as a drawback (or rather, as a waste of space on the blockchain), utilizing this extra space to store cipher texts has been suggested; together with a strongly unforgeable ring signature scheme, this would qualify as an encrypt-then-authenticate scheme (satisfying the gold standard of security models). Hence, we have two directions that do not directly conflict: improve the space and time efficiency of range proofs or use the large space complexity to add utility to the blockchain as more than a ledger.
|
||||
|
||||
The matter is somewhat complicated because ring signatures are a fundamental component to the working of our current range proof implementations. Hence, any progress on ring signatures has consequences for range proofs. Work is ongoing to produce range proof constructions that are both efficient and secure; for example \texttt{luigi} is working on implementing a change of base that should improve space complexity, and both \texttt{sarang} and \texttt{surae} are constantly on the lookout for new schemes. The recent introduction of the RTRS Ring CT test implementation (discussed above) brought with it new proofs involving commitments that may be applicable to range proofs. This reduces the space available for encryption and increases verification time. Improving the space and verification-time complexity of range proofs now faces similar trade-offs as those described in Section \ref{secOne}, and so any optimization made in that area (as in choice of elliptic curve or more efficient elliptic curve arithmetic implementation) will also improve this area.
|
||||
|
||||
Currently, the Lab is under the impression that we should be rather satisfied by large but fast-to-verify range proofs together with small but slow-to-verify Ring CT schemes (i.e.\ the Borromean ring signatures from the original MLSAG Ring CT description acting as range proofs, and the RTRS Ring CT acting as ring signatures).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Blockchain Pruning and Generalizations}
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Summary:}
|
||||
|
||||
We are currently investigating methods of blockchain pruning and generalizations of blockchain-like data structures that may lead to different properties.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Timing and Urgency:}
|
||||
|
||||
This project is of moderate urgency; the increased utility of the Monero blockchain is balanced by other issues with greater urgency regarding security, and we are not anticipating immediate progress.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{History and Details:}
|
||||
|
||||
We are investigating the abstract data structure of a blockchain. Some of this includes different methods of forming blockchains, and some of this includes blockchain pruning. Pruning of the blockchain is deeply connected to minimizing the information necessary to protect against double-spends and malicious blockchain rewrites.
|
||||
|
||||
In terms of pruning, we hope to implement blockchain pruning to reduce the amount of information needed in the blockchain. It is of critical importance that any method of pruning the blockchain only negligibly degrades protection against double spends and only negligibly influences an adversary's advantage in traceability analyses. To be precise, we seek a data structure asymptotically smaller than the Monero blockchain, such that an adversary in control of a fixed proportion $p$ of network nodes can successfully execute a double-spend attack with a probability of success at most $f(p)$ where $f$ is some function that is negligible in some security parameter.
|
||||
|
||||
A naive implementation of such a rule, for example, would be to discard any blocks from more than $10$ years in the past. In this scenario, any double-spend attack might require referencing invalid transactions from more than $10$ years ago and, unless an adversary has control over a high proportion of the network for most of those $10$ years, other miners would have probably discovered the invalid transactions some time in the previous decade. You'll notice these previous two sentences are filled with hedging words ``naive,'' ``might,'' ``high proportion,'' ``most,'' and ``probably.'' The point is we have not yet finished formalizing these notions, and yet all these notions can be quantified and made precise yielding straightforward analysis. Although all of the above seems reasonable, the math is going to determine exactly whether this decision is prudent and fruitful.
|
||||
|
||||
These issues were high priority in the last road map. These are being downgraded to a lower priority since, with access to RTRS Ring CT, the limiting factor in the efficiency of the Monero blockchain is time, not space. Our primary concern for any blockchain pruning method or any alternative implementation of the blockchain is, therefore, to improve verification time (especially for new nodes catching up to the tip).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Monero Traceability Analyses}
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Summary:}
|
||||
|
||||
We are currently investigating previous criticisms of Monero's traceability, as in \cite{miller2017empirical} and \cite{kumar2017traceability}, and the attack detailed by \texttt{knaccc} where an AML/KYC exchange knows ownership information of some of their customer's one-time addresses and can use this to determine the flow of money between their customers.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Timing and Urgency:}
|
||||
|
||||
This project is of high urgency due to concern in the community, but we are not self-imposing a deadline on our analysis. Our assessment of these security concerns will be made available when we are confident in the correctness of our analysis.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{History and Details:}
|
||||
|
||||
For any two incoming transactions, if all possible senders are equiprobable then we say that set-up is \textit{untraceable}. It is known that Monero is not strictly untraceable, which was a result we exploited when investigating chain reactions in \cite{noether2014note}, and is exploited in \cite{miller2017empirical} and \cite{kumar2017traceability}. The claims in each of these documents were made before MLSAG Ring CT was implemented; as of the most recent hard fork, MLSAG Ring CT signatures are now required for all Monero transactions and many of the routes of degrading Monero's untraceability presented are no longer relevant. Although the specific criticisms presented in these papers are (mostly) no longer directly relevant to Monero in particular, they present interesting heuristics and approaches that MRL finds sufficiently important to study in some detail.
|
||||
|
||||
To ease concerns in the community, we first show how Monero may be regarded as traceable, and then we explain some of the mitigating properties that the protocol enjoys. To see how Monero may be regarded as traceable, consider the first case: a transaction appears whose ring $T$ has transaction output public keys $T = \left\{T_1, T_2\right\}$ where the key $T_1$ appears in $N_1$ other ring signatures elsewhere on the blockchain and $T_2$ appears in $N_2$ other ring signatures. If $N_1 = 1$ and $N_2 = 10^5$, the \textit{a priori} likelihood that $T_1$ has been spent is much lower than the likelihood that $T_2$ has been spent. After all, $T_2$ has had $10,000$ different possible outgoing transactions reference it, but $T_1$ has only had one. Hence, if we receive a transaction with ring $T$, without any additional information, we can be reasonably sure that $T_1$ and $T_2$ are not equiprobable as possible senders of the transaction. Consider the second case: if two transactions both have ring signatures with the same ring $T = \left\{T_1, T_2\right\}$, it is impossible that both $T_1$ and $T_2$ remain unspent, allowing an adversary to be able to determine spent transactions.
|
||||
|
||||
Nevertheless, these examples also demonstrate the inherent problem with these approaches, especially when the mitigating properties of Monero are taken into account. The use of one-time addresses ensures that the \textit{sensitivity and specificity} of these tests are not both directly estimable (direct estimation would require unmasking the one-time addresses). Sensitivity and specificity are both critically important to assessing the goodness of any test. To see the relevance of this in the first case, note that we can \textit{estimate} the differences in likelihood that $T_1$ or $T_2$ has been spent, but we cannot be sure and we have no reasonable way of measuring the goodness of our estimate. If a malicious user wishes to frame an innocent user in an illegal transaction, they could simply use one of their own transaction outputs that has appeared in many rings to perform an illegal transaction filled with ostensibly innocent public keys. Hence, in isolation, such analyses are unsuitable for establishing anything except circumstantial association between addresses, although they can be leveraged together to provide rather interesting analyses.
|
||||
|
||||
Note that the use of ring signatures also brings a combinatorial explosion to the problem of analyzing traceability, and this is exacerbated as ring sizes improve. Due to this, in the second case, although we can tell that both $T_1$ and $T_2$ have been spent, we cannot determine, for example, which was spent first. This provides two possible states ($T_1$ was spent first or not). In this case, we have two outputs, so we have two possibilities; if minimum ring sizes are $N$, then we end up with $N$ possibilities, and repeated transactions leads to an $N$-ary tree of possibilities. To establish the chain of ownership of $M$ transactions long would therefore require exploration of a space of $N^M$ possibilities. The above approaches would allow us to assign a priori likelihoods to each of these possibilities, but it is clear that a large chain of transactions (say $86$ or more transactions) with large ring sizes (say $10$) will lead to more possibilities than there are fundamental particles in the universe.
|
||||
|
||||
We here at the Lab previously thought that one possible solution to \texttt{knaccc}'s described attack would be \textit{churning}, where one sends funds to oneself multiple times before using at a merchant. Unfortunately, this leads to chains of self-referential transactions, which leave an undesirable and identifiable statistical signal. Investigating and improving the untraceability in Monero is a high urgency but never-ending problem. We have reason to believe that the hardness of analyzing the Monero blockchain currently is sufficient to protect user security in the short-term, especially if we implement larger ring sizes using RTRS Ring CT.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Federated ZK-Side Chains}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Summary:}
|
||||
|
||||
We at the lab are looking into temporally-restricted federated side chains running ZK-SNARK technology to improve the traceability issues described above.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Timing and Urgency:}
|
||||
|
||||
This project is of unknown urgency and has been presented to us by \texttt{fluffypony} only recently. If traceability analyses seem to improve, the urgency will become quite high.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{History and Details:}
|
||||
|
||||
Zero knowledge succinct non-interactive arguments of knowledge (ZK-SNARKs) use a trusted set-up to ensure proof against double-spend attacks. Monero does not require a trusted set-up to ensure against double-spend attacks, but suffers some traceability criticisms made as in \cite{miller2017empirical} and \cite{kumar2017traceability}. One possible solution is to run side chains utilizing zk-snark technology with finite lifespans; funds would be ``deposited'' from the Monero blockchain to the zero-knowledge side chain (zidechain), transactions on the zidechain would proceed in zero-knowledge, and then users can ``withdraw'' from the zidechain back to the main Monero blockchain before the zidechain self destructs. Double spend protection in Monero would provide users confidence that any trusted set-up used in the construction of the zidechain would not allow for double spends making it back onto the Monero blockchain \textit{without detection}; if any double-spends are detected, the zidechain can be terminated early and begun again.
|
||||
|
||||
Some questions have been raised about the feasibility of zero knowledge succinct transparent non-interactive arguments of knowledge (ZK-STARKSs). While such constructions remove the requirement for a trusted set-up, they are currently not available in a usable and well-reviewed form. However, once rigorously-tested ZK-STARK technologies become more generally accessible, the Lab would investigate a transition from temporary ZK-SNARK zidechains toward more permanent ZK-STARK constructions.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{New Cryptoschemes}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Summary:}
|
||||
|
||||
The Lab is constantly on the lookout for new cryptoschemes that may be useful in the Monero protocol.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Timing and Urgency:}
|
||||
|
||||
This project is of low to moderate urgency, but is a constant area of research with no particular goal in mind.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{History and Details:}
|
||||
|
||||
Before RTRS Ring CT and before Ruffing's linearity proof, the primary focus of this area was to find more efficient signatures; this is an ongoing area of research (rather than a to-do-list item) that \textit{produces new areas of research}. Every element of the Monero protocol must be considered for possible replacement in the event that various cryptoschemes are broken or if new security models are made available.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Long-term ASIC Proofing}
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Summary:}
|
||||
|
||||
The Lab is composing a plan of action in the case that devices are manufactured that are many orders of magnitude more power-efficient at executing proof of work with our current cryptographic hash function, CryptoNight, than current computers. Our plan includes investigating alternative problems that may be helpful for a Nakamoto Proof of Work model of blockchain write access, and includes looking into variations on the Nakamoto Proof of Work model.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Timing and Urgency:}
|
||||
|
||||
Like many other projects, this one is low to moderate urgency. We plan on having a sketch of an ASIC-proofing plan for Monero by the end of Spring 2018.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{History and Details:}
|
||||
|
||||
One of the unspoken elements of the CryptoNote white paper was a dedication to a social contract of decentralized currency. To this end, the CryptoNote creators manufactured their own memory-hard cryptographic hash function for use in Proof-of-Work; due to the access of this hash function to the L3 cache, modern computer architecture ensures that making CryptoNight ASICs will be difficult for at least several more years. However, contingency plans are great to have.
|
||||
|
||||
The Lab is currently investigating other memory-hard problems not involving cryptographic hash functions that would be suitable for Proof of Work; we have our eye on problems that provide some utility to global economies or scientific pursuits, so that the Monero blockchain becomes not only a record of transactions but a record of solutions to difficult-to-solve problems. We are also investigating alternatives to proof of work itself, such as Proof of Storage.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Technical Papers}
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Summary:}
|
||||
|
||||
The Lab has several technical papers in preparation, some for peer review, some for internal usage at Monero, and some intended as white papers to be made public.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Timing and Urgency:}
|
||||
|
||||
Varies by paper.
|
||||
|
||||
\subsection{Details:}
|
||||
In addition to the items above, the following upcoming technical papers are also in the works:
|
||||
\begin{enumerate}[(i)]
|
||||
\item \textbf{Updating the CryptoNote Standards}: While the Monero code is (now) well-documented, the protocol has moved above and beyond the original CryptoNote 2.0 white paper. Especially with the advent of Ring CT, sub-addresses, and threshold multisignatures, and with the possibility of implementing RTRS Ring CT in the coming months, the need for a complete, accurate technical document is becoming quite clear. Moreover, we wish to include certain technical standards in future implementations that we should codify sooner rather than later. As a low-level urgency project, we will be writing a new white paper (or a sequence of them) describing the current Monero protocol in detail for completion by late spring or middle summer 2018.
|
||||
|
||||
\item \textbf{Zero-knowledge Lit Review}: This document is still in progress. Jeffrey Quesnelle, a computer science graduate student at the University of Michigan at Dearborn is pursuing his thesis and has decided this includes some work with Monero Research Lab. He wrote a literature review of zero knowledge schemes and their application in cryptocurrencies, for submission for peer review (journal to be determined). We initially expected this to be done by the end of August 2017, but there have been delays. We will make available a pre-print on ArXiV after a few revisions. Currently, this is one of the two top priorities for \texttt{surae} and he hopes to have a draft ready for submission before the end of September 2017.
|
||||
|
||||
\item \textbf{The Distributional Problem}: Most of the time, the true signer of a ring signature in Monero is the owner of the newest transaction in that signature. How should the distribution for mix-ins depend on transaction age? This corresponds to certain interesting approximation problems in statistics, but also certain game-theoretic questions reminiscent of \cite{T-1955}, for example. As a matter of user privacy, the urgency of this problem is rather low, due to the one-time addresses in Monero, but this problem may have some interesting low-hanging fruit. This item is identical to the previous road map and we do not anticipate significant progress on this before Spring 2018.
|
||||
|
||||
\end{enumerate}
|
||||
|
||||
\section{Back burner}
|
||||
|
||||
In MRL-R001, we were ambitious and listed many projects that we anticipated movement on and thought could be fun. Unfortunately, many of these have seen no movement, because they are of low urgency. These include \textbf{testing blockchain dynamics with population-driven modeling} and \textbf{hardness of blockchain analysis} (see above about combinatorial explosions). Many late undergraduate math and computer science students may be able to assist us with these. Interested contributors with (i) experience in coding and differential equations or (ii) experience in numerical analysis can contact Monero Research Lab at \href{mailto:sarang.noether@protonmail.com}{\texttt{sarang.noether@protonmail.com}} in the interest of collaboration.
|
||||
|
||||
In MRL-R0001, we also included the idea of future-proofing Monero, which is more of a design philosophy when approaching new schemes rather than a specific active area of research. Consequently, we are removing this as a specific item on the list and incorporating this as an attitude in our design philosophy.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\section*{Conclusion}
|
||||
|
||||
As always, the MRL team strives to provide thorough research to the community, balancing cutting-edge research with user trust, community transparency, and security of funds. The team thanks the Monero community for its support and guidance, and looks forward to continuing its mission with precision and passion. Monero remains the strongest, most innovative, and sexiest coin we know, and the Lab is proud to support its future.
|
||||
|
||||
We request members of the community contribute their opinions on this list and ideas they would like to see added. Areas of research, possible vulnerabilities to the Monero system, new cryptographic schemes, new models, and new insights are always welcome. Please do not hesitate to contact us.
|
||||
|
||||
The Monero Research Lab wishes to state emphatically that our concern is to report our findings on Monero, which is an open source project, as honestly and transparently as possible. Our goal is not to persuade, re-assure, or enrich speculators or investors; our goal is to assist the Monero community and the Monero Core Team in the design of a robust and strong cryptocurrency with an emphasis on user privacy. Consequently, all findings will \textit{eventually} be responsibly disclosed to the Monero community. Responsible disclosure may involve maintaining secrecy regarding security flaws for a period of time before disclosure to the public, which provides the development team time to correct known issues and protect our users. This also provides time to discreetly contact the developers of other cryptocurrencies so they, also, may protect their users.
|
||||
|
||||
Some members of the Lab are supported financially by the community through the Forum Funding System and are paid in Monero for their work. Readers may view this as a conflict of interest. However, researchers are not paid for particular projects or implementations of proposals, offering some separation from direct outside influence.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
\medskip{}
|
||||
|
||||
\bibliographystyle{plain}
|
||||
\bibliography{biblio.bib}
|
||||
|
||||
\end{document}
|
||||
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